English the Most Amazing Subject

English Class 8 Task 1 Reading exercise Read the novel, ‘The Boy in The Striped Pyjamas’ by John Boyne; Chapters 1- 4 Focus on: †¢ What themes are explored in the first four chapters? †¢ The relationship between Bruno and Maria. Task 2 Speaking and Listening Prepare a 2 minute talk to your class about something that really irritates you. It does not necessarily require a very formal language. Follow the steps below: 1. Decide on a topic. It’s always best to talk about things you actually know about and to express feelings you really have. . Structure your talk. It may be brief, but it still requires: †¢ An opening in which you quickly grab the audience’s attention and let them know what you’re going to talk about. †¢ A main body in which you give a couple of reasons or ideas to support your point. †¢ A conclusion in which you leave the listeners with a memorable phrase. Task 3 Grammar Practice adverbs and adjectives using the following websites: †¢ http://www. schoolexpress. com/fws/cat. php? id=2287 †¢ http://sites. google. com/site/jostombaugh/adjectivesadverbs Task 4 Spelling Learn the spellings of the following words: 1. Autumn 2. Knowledge 3. Development 4. Embarrass 5. Definite 6. Audible 7. Concentration 8. Assessment 9. Accommodation 10. Diamond 11. Beginning 12. Height 13. Queue 14. Business 15. Beneath 16. Tomorrow 17. Jealous 18. Questionnaire 19. Issue 20. Atmosphere 21. Continuous 22. Marriage 23. Imaginary 24. Improvise 25. Miscellaneous 26. Happened 27. Process 28. February 29. Forty 30. Separate 31. Straight 32. Success 33. Reference 34. Technique 35. Conscience 36. Murmur 37. Diary 38. Design 39. Column 40. Weird 41. Listening 42. Montague 43. Mantua 44. Capulet 45. Shakespeare 46. Idolatry 47. Adversaries 48. Nuptial 49. Forfeit 50. Foreshadowing 51. Shroud 52. Apothecary 53. Tybalt 54. Abram 55. Balthasar 56. Rosaline 57. Cemetery 58. Epitaph 59. Exile 60. Enmity ———————– NOTE: †¢ Students will be assessed on the given tasks when they return to school. †¢ Any queries regarding these tasks should be addressed to: [email  protected] com

Chondrogenesis Of Adult Stem Cells Health And Social Care Essay

1.0 IntroductionDegenerative gristle diseases, such as degenerative arthritis ( OA ) , affect 1000000s of people worldwide and therefore have tremendous societal and economic effects. Osteoarthritis is characterized by progressive devastation of articular gristle and finally the full articulation, associated with variable grades of local redness, motional hurting, puffiness of the damaged tissue and thickener of the articulations. The internal fix capacity of articular gristle is hapless due to several alone features of the tissue, including slow turnover of gristle collagen, deficiency of vascularisation and the low figure of root cells that could lend to the fix. In mature articular gristle, chondrocytes have small intrinsic potency for fix. Repair may happen by an extrinsic mechanism, which depends on mesenchymal stromal cells ( MSCs ) in next connective tissue. Several intervention options have been used for gristle fix in gristle lesions, including soft tissue trades, and chondrocyte and osteochondral organ transplant. However these methods are limited by the hapless handiness of suited donor tissue and the hazard of infection and implant failure associated w ith entire joint replacings [ 14 ] . These restrictions are the driving force behind much research into cell-based methods for efficaciously handling diseased or damaged gristle [ 15 ] . Tissue technology has been defined as â€Å" an interdisciplinary field that applies the rules of technology and the life sciences toward the development of biological replacements that restore, maintain, or better tissue map † [ 14 ] ) . Tissue technology schemes by and large involve the undermentioned phases: ( 1 ) designation and isolation of a suited beginning of cells ; ( 2 ) industry of a device to either carry or encapsulate the cells ; ( 3 ) uniform seeding of cells onto or into the device and appropriate civilization ; and ( 4 ) in vivo nidation of the engineered concept ( Figure-1 [ 16 ] ) . Figure-1: Conventional representation of a tissue technology scheme: ( A ) isolation of an appropriate cell population ; ( B ) fiction of a scaffold ; ( C ) seeding of cells into scaffold and in vitro civilization of cell-scaffold concept ; and ( D ) nidation of tissue engineered device. The field of tissue technology has opened up new possibilities for fix and regeneration of gristle by uniting cells, biomaterial scaffolds, and bioactive signals [ 1, 2 ] . Mesenchymal cells ( MSCs ) offer a promising beginning due to its ability to proliferate extensively and distinguish into multiple cell line of descents in vitro and in vivo, including chondrocytes, bone-forming cells and adipocytes [ 6 ] . MSCs are present in a assortment of grownup tissues, such as bone marrow and adipose tissue. Adult root cells derived from adipose tissue ( adipose-derived root cells, ASCs ) [ 3,4 ] and bone marrow ( bone marrow-derived mesenchymal root cells, BMSCs ) [ 5,6 ] have shown important chondrogenic potency for such a tissue technology attack [ 7-10 ] . The BMSCs or human bone marrow stromal root cells can be cultured, expanded and so transplanted into the injured site or, after seeding on molded polymer scaffolds, placed back in the patient to bring forth appropriate tissue concepts. It is a instead clip overwhelming process for the patients and the research lab employees. Besides, these BMSCs have a low cell figure upon reaping so they need to be expanded and so transplanted to the injured site or seeded on/in a polymer scaffold. The procedure takes much clip as besides the clip it requires in the research lab, the patients need to be operated twice, first to roll up the BMSCs and-or stabilise the defect and so to put the scaffold or transfer the BMSCs. Adipose tissue might be a promising alternate beginning of root cells that could hold far-reaching effects on several Fieldss including gristle tissue technology. It is really good known that root cells derived from adipose tissue are capable to distinguish into adipocytes, chondrocytes, bone-forming cells and myoblasts, like Mesenchymal Stem Cells ( MSCs ) . ASCs have attracted involvement due to ease of isolation process and comparative copiousness handiness of cells as compared to BMSCs [ 11, 12 ] . Large figure of ASCs in adipose tissue makes them an ideal campaigner for so called â€Å" one measure surgical process † for the intervention of osteo chondral defects [ 13 ] . Chondrogenic distinction of these cells may be induced by specii ¬?c cytokines, growing factors [ 22 ] , biophysical stimulation such as hydrostatic force per unit area, hyperosmolarity, hypoxia and proviso of a suited three-dimensional ( 3-D ) environment. In this literature describe the focal point is on methods used for bring oning adipose derived root cells and bone marrow derived root cells into the chondrogenic line of descent and besides to know apart initiation methods between adipose derived root cells and bone marrow derived root cells. This leads to treatments on ( 1 ) rudimentss of gristle tissue technology and the usage of root cells ( 2 ) features and biological facets of BMSCs ( 3 ) features and biological facets of root cells derived from adipose tissue ( 4 ) difference between these two root cells, ( 5 ) Factors used for bring oning adipose root cells in to chondrogenic line of descent2.0 Cartilage2.1 Cartilage biological scienceCartilage is a an avascular, aneural and alymphatic connective tissue nowadays in many sites of the craniate organic structure, including the jointing articulations between castanetss, rib coop, ear, nose, bronchial tubings and intervertebral phonograph record. Cartilage is classified in three s ubtypes based on its morphology and the composing of the extracellular matrix ( ECM ) asA hyaloid gristle, elastic cartilageA andA fibro-cartilage. Out of the three subtypes hyaloid gristle is rich in collagen type II and proteoglycan and it is found in between articulations. Besides it is the lone gristle subtype that can prolong mechanical strain. Articular gristle, which is present at the jointing surfaces of castanetss within synovial articulations, is formed from hyaloid gristle. The location of articular gristle within the articulatio genus articulation is shown in Figure 2. Articular gristle forms a lasting bed with a thickness of 0.5 to 7.0mm at the surface cut downing clash between the castanetss and administering tonss across the full articulation surface [ 89 ] . The one disadvantage of gristle is that unlike other type of tissues, foods are non supplied by blood vass alternatively diffuse through the matrix and gristle is repaired at a slower rate than other connective t issues. This is due to the deficiency of the three-step lesion mending procedure nowadays in other tissues ; i.e. redness, proliferation and tissue remodeling. Chondrogenesis is the procedure by which gristle is formed from condensed mesenchymal connectiveA tissue, which differentiates intoA chondrocytesA and secretes the molecules that form the extracellular matrix. The procedure begins with the collection and condensation of loose mesenchyme. Early in foetal development, the greater portion of the skeleton is cartilaginous. ThisA temporaryA gristle is bit by bit replaced by bone ( Endochondral ossification ) , a procedure that ends at pubescence. In contrast, the gristle in the articulations remains unossified during the whole of life and is, hence, A permanent. Factors such as the bone morphogenetic proteins ( BMPs ) are known to play critical functions in the compression of mesenchymal cells and the defining of the condensation [ 17 ] . As discussed before, onceA damaged gristle has limited fix capablenesss sinceA chondrocytesA are bound inA blank, they can non migrate to damaged countries. Fig-2 Location of articular gristle within the articulatio genus articulation ( adapted from Drury and Shipley 1998 ) .2.2 Cartilage tissue technologyAs gristle healing is limited, there exists a turning demand for cell based schemes for gristle fix. The quickly rising field of tissue technology holds great promise for the coevals of functional tissue replacements, including gristle, by technology tissue constructsA in vitroA for subsequent implantationA in vivo. The basic rule is to use a biocompatible, structurally and automatically sound scaffold that is seeded with an appropriate cell beginning, and is loaded with bioactive molecules to advance cellular distinction and/or ripening. Although advancement has been made late in technology gristle of assorted forms and sizes for decorative intents [ 18 ] , the challenges of technology a weight-bearing tissue, such as articular gristle that consists of multiphasic cellular architecture, are important. Articular gristle provides its ain peculiar challenges for tissue technology. Though its construction appears simple and contains merely one cell type, it has a complex and extremely organized extracellular matrix ( ECM ) . The physical belongingss of articular gristle depend on the construction and organisation of the supermolecules in the ECM. The construction of collagen gives it impressive tensile belongingss, which is utile to bring forth a tissue that is non merely strong in tenseness but besides immune to compaction. This is achieved by make fulling the interfibrillar matrix with a really high content of proteoglycan, chiefly aggrecanA [ 19, 20 ] . The challenge for gristle tissue technology is to bring forth gristle tissue with suited construction and propertiesA ex vivo, which can be implanted into articulations to supply a natural fix that with clip, will go incorporate with the patient ‘s tissues. There have been a figure of successful attacks to weave applied scientist gristle, including the usage of natural and man-made biomaterial scaffolds, allogeneic and autologous beginnings of mature chondrocytes and chondroprogenitor cells, biophysical cues such as hydrostatic force per unit area, hyperosmolarity, hypoxia, chondroinductive growing factors, such as the transforming growing factor-I?s ( TGF-I?s ) , and combinations thereof. Some of the current progresss in cartilage tissue technology are highlighted here.3.0 Characterization and biological facets of Adipose root cells and bone marrow root cells3.1 Bone marrow-derived root cells ( BMSCs )Bone marrow contains three types of root cells, haematopoietic root cells, m esenchymal root cells and endothelial root cells. Hematopoietic root cells give rise to the three categories of blood cells that are found in the circulation white blood cellsA ( leucocytes ) , A ruddy blood cells ( red blood cells ) , andA plateletsA ( platelets ) . Mesenchymal root cellsA are found arrayed around the cardinal fistula in the bone marrow. They have the capableness to distinguish intoA bone-forming cells, chondrocytes, A myocytes, and many other types of cells. Stem cells obtained from bone marrow are found in the stroma of the marrow. These cells are typically obtained from bone marrow aspirates from marrow graft givers. When cultured in vitro, bone marrow root cells exhibit a fibroblast-like morphology. Marrow stromal cells have been studied and certain cell surface markers have been identified which are utile in cell choice and finding of readying of marrow root cell populations [ 21 ] . In add-on to their ability to distinguish into multiple cell line of descents, the usage of bone marrow root cells offer a beginning of cells that is isolated and expanded in vitro. Bone marrow-derived root cells were isolated and described for the i ¬?rst clip by Friedenstein and Owen at the University of Oxford, UK, in the 1960s, followed by intensive work on the survey of the belongingss of these cells [ 23-29 ] . They took bone marrow and incubated for 4 hours in fictile civilization dishes and removed the non-adherent cells. A heterogonous population of cells was retrieved, with some adherent cells exhibiting a spindle form ; besides, they multiplied quickly in vitro, organizing distinguishable settlements called colony-forming unit i ¬?broblasts ( CFU-Fs ) . Finally, these cells were successfully isolated from several mammals, including worlds [ 30,31 ] . In add-on, the CFU-Fs were found to hold multi-potent, therefore connoting that they have stem cell belongingss [ 29,32 ] . These cells differentiated into multiple mesenchymal cell line of descents in vitro, including bone [ 33 ] , ligament [ 34 ] , adipose [ 33 ] , gristle [ 35,36 ] and musculus [ 3 7 ] . Similarly, following the organ transplant of CFU-Fs in vivo, they formed little sedimentations of bone, gristle or fat [ 37-39 ] . This was further supported the multi-potent potency of CFU-Fs. Similar cells have been isolated from different mesenchymal tissues, including synovial [ 40 ] , sinews [ 41 ] , skeletal musculuss [ 42 ] and adipose tissue [ 43,44 ] . BMSCs are normally isolated from the mononucleate bed of bone marrow after separation by denseness gradient centrifugation. These mononucleate cells are cultured in media incorporating 10-15 % foetal calf or autologous serum [ 45 ] . The BMSCs adhere to the tissue civilization plastic, go forthing little adherent i ¬?broblast-like cells. Thereafter, the cells divide and proliferate quickly. For in vitro chondrogenic distinction MSCs are needed to be kept in high denseness 3-D environment. This can be attained by aggregating the cells in mircomass pellets or as suspension in alginate. Different man-made or biological scaffolds like agarose, collagen suspensions, fibrin gels and biopolymers can be used [ 46-48 ] . Alginate bead civilization is an first-class tool for chondrogenic distinction surveies in vitro. Alginate is a additive polyose which is soluble in aqueous solutions and cells can be homogenously suspended in it. It is cross-linked in presence of Ca or other bivalent ions to organize a polymerized hydrogel. Importantly, it can be easy resolubilized by a chelating agent ethylenediaminetetraacetate ( EDTA ) to divide cells from the ECM [ 49 ] . Chondrogenic distinction is a complicated procedure necessitating good defined conditions, hence, external foetal calf serum ( FCS ) usually used for proliferation of MSCs has to be substituted by defined medium addendum, like widely used ITSa„? . ITSa„? contains insulin, beta globulin, selenious acid and linoleic acid suspended in solution of bovine serum albumen. Insulin as a endocrine addendum is necessary for endurance of cells as it is involved in fatty acid and animal starch synthesis. Transferrin is an iron-binding protein for endocrines and foods, hence, it is critical for in vitro cell growing and selenious acid is a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase necessary for cell membrane unity. Linoleic acid is an built-in constituent of chondrogenic medium, like many unsaturated fatty acids it is an built-in membrane constituent and of import for cell growing. It is non a specific chondrogenic distinction factor but in combination with Tgf-? has profound stimulatory consequence on chondrogenesis. Tgf-? entirely and in combination with Decadron enhance chondrogenesis [ 50,51 ] . The chondrogenic medium has to be enriched with proline because this amino acid is found in really high concen trations in extracellular matrices. Pro-x-gly-pro sequence motive appears really often in collagens where ten is normally a impersonal amino acid. Ascorbic acid is required as an negatron giver, therefore it contributes collagen synthesis by moving as a carbon monoxide factor for lysine proline hydroxylation necessity for the formation of typical-triple coiling collagen constructions [ 52 ] . As all the needed conditions are met MSCs start to lose their fibroblast like features and get down showing chondrocyte particular ECM which can be monitored by look of chondrogenic markers. Several other methods are used to assist distinguish MSCs into osteocytes, adipocytes, myocytes or tenocytes in vitro. Bone marrow aspirates are still being used though there are major restraints. The chief restraints in utilizing BMSCs are: heterogenous population of the cells, painful process to roll up the bone marrow and the population of MSCs nowadays in bone marrow is really low ( 0.001-0.01 % or about 1 MSC per 105 disciple stromal cells ) [ 53 ] . Besides MSCs needs to be expanded in vitro for a longer period of clip before adequate cells are present for seeding the scaffold or organ transplant [ 53 ] . These restraints favours the statement for placing new beginnings as feasible options to cram marrow, but farther surveies in clinically relevant animate being theoretical accounts are needed to better qualify the comparative – in our case- chondrogenic potency. One of these options might lie in the usage of root cells derived from adipose tissue.3.2 Adipose tissue-derived root cellsIn order to utilize adipose tissue for the usage of tissue technology, the composing of this tissue needs to be analyzed foremost. Adipose tissue is specialized connective tissue that maps as the major storage site for fat in the signifier of triglycerides. In grownup mammals, the major majority of adipose tissue is a loose association of lipid-filled cells, which are held in a model of collagen fibres. Adipose tissue, better known as fat is composed of blood cells, endothelial cells, pericytes, fibroblasts, adipose precursor cells, and adipocytes [ 54, 55 ] . Fat is divided into two types ( I ) br own adipose tissue ( BAT ) and white adipose tissue ( WAT ) . The morphology and map of brown fat cells are distinguishable from white adipocytes. The map of BAT is to interpret energy into heat production [ 56 ] . Phenotypically, brown fat cells are rich in chondriosome and accumulate lipoids in multiple little droplets [ 57 ] . The tissue what is normally recognized as â€Å" the fat † , which is besides the larger proportion of the organic structure fat, consists of WAT. Mature adipocytes of WAT are cells with one big lipid droplet and really small cytol with the karyon located at fringe of the cell [ 54 ] . This morphology is described as the signet pealing signifier and the cell may be termed a univacuolar adipocyte. White adipose tissue serves three maps: heat insularity, mechanical shock absorber, and most significantly, a beginning of energy [ 55 ] ( Fig 1 ) Figure 1a†Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ White fat cell and brown fat cell. Note the individual big lipid vacuole in the white fat cell and the legion smaller lipid vacuoles in the brown fat cell. LV: lipid vacuole ; M: chondriosome ; N: karyon. Artwork courtesy of Dr. John Horwitz, U.C. Davis. The white fat cells range in size from 25 to 200 micrometers. Mitochondrions are found preponderantly in the thicker part of the cytoplasmatic rim near the karyon. The big lipid droplet does non look to incorporate any intracellular cell organs. A brown fat cell may make a diameter of 60 micrometers and the lipid droplet within the cell may make 25 micrometers in diameter. The brown colour of this tissue is derived from the cells ‘ rich vascularization and dumbly jammed chondriosomes. These chondriosomes vary in size and may be round, egg-shaped, or filiform in form [ 56,57 ] .3.3 Biological facets of ASCs in vivo and in vitroThe exact beginning of the adipocyte, the chief cells of adipose tissue, is still non to the full understood. The earliest phase in adipocyte distinction is pluripotent root cells which give rise to mesenchymal precursor cells [ 58 ] . These pluripotent root cells are the adipose-derived grownup root ( ASCs ) cells. These ASCs are capable to distinguish in to the chondrogenic, osteogenic, and adipogenic line of descents, neural cells and clamber [ 58 ] . ASCs, besides called processed lipoaspirate cells ( PLA cells ) , are considered a separate cell population within the adipose tissue [ 4 ] . The capacity of ASCs to distinguish into several tissues suggests the presence of a root cell population within adipose tissue, it can non be ruled out though the presence of pluripotent cells from other beginnings, like marrow-derived MSCs from peripheral blood, or dedifferentiation of mature adipocytes will ensue in the coevals of pluripotent cells. However, the presence of MSCs in peripheral blood is non likely. The sum of MSCs in bone marrow is low, i1 MSC per 105 stromal cells [ 6,53 ] and the sum of MSCs in peripheral blood is even lower. One major advantage of ASCs is that it can be isolated from many fat terminals within the organic structure by minimally invasive suction lipectomy and by subsequent enzymatic digestion of adipose tissue [ 4 ] . Besides deficit of autologous donor tissue is, in the instance of adipose tissue, really improbable in most persons. ASCs are located in the stromal-vascular fraction ( SVF ) of the host adipose tissue. Adipose tissues are normally harvested by resection or suction lipectomy and later digested with collagenase type I. Once the stromal-vascular multitudes are isolated, they are cultured in lineage-specific civilization media. For chondrocyte distinction the cells are cultured in DMEM supplemented with FBS, insulin, transforming growing factor ( TGF ) , ascorbate and Decadron at suited concentrations. ASCs are able to defy freeze/thaw direction without any apparent impact on the growing characteristic. However, when adipose tissue is harvested from the organic structure the surgical processs used have some impact on the subsequent growing profile of ASC. Ultrasound-assisted suction lipectomy consequences in a lower frequence of proliferating ASC, every bit good as a longer population duplicating clip of ASC, compared with pure resection and puffy resection. Phenotypic markers are non affected by ultr asound intervention [ 59 ] . Guilak et Al. showed that ASCs ringers derived from lipoaspirates can distinguish along two or more of the adipogenic, osteogenic, chondrogenic and neuron-like cells [ 60 ] . These findings coupled with the fact that ASCs can undergo several population doublings while retaining their distinction capablenesss, supports the hypothesis that ASCs are a type of multi-potent grownup root cells [ 60, 61 ] . In vitro, distinction of ASCs cells can be induced by the supplementation of endocrines and substrates to the growing medium. Some illustrations are: Glucocorticoids ( corticosterone, hydrocortisone, dexamethason, and cortisol ) , phosphodiesterase inhibitors ( IBMX, forskolin ) , peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ( PPAR I? ) ligands ( adipogenic distinction ) , indomethacin, fibrates ( Atromid-S, bezafibrate, and fenofibrate ) , insulin, and liothyronine. Besides growing factors have been found to modulate distinction, like basic FGF, EGF, PDGF, TGF I? , and TNF [ 44 ] . An illustration of lineage-specific distinction induced by media supplementation is demonstrated by Zuk et Al. [ 44 ] . The experimental and clinical grounds shows that ASCs are an equal alternate beginning for regenerative medical specialty peculiarly because it can be maintained in vitro for drawn-out periods of clip with stable population doublings and low aging degrees [ 4 ] . Although the bone marrow is a dependable beginning of root cells, its crop is an invasive process and the figure of stray cells can be low and age dependant. Pittenger et Al. [ 6 ] showed that merely 0.01-0.001 % of mononucleate cells isolated from the bone marrow lead to colony-forming units. On the other manus, adipose tissue can give big sums of root cells and can be obtained in copiousness. As such, ASCs open legion and promising positions for regenerative therapies.4.0 Factors impacting chondrogenesis4.1 Consequence of Growth factors on chondrogenesisThe usage of cytokines and growing factors is really of import for the development of a defined civilization environment for directing the chondrogenic distinction of root cells. Indeed, legion cytokines and growing factors have been implicated in chondrogenesis. As the procedure of chondrogenesis is so closely related with osteogenesis, many of the cytokines and growing factors that promote chondrogenic distinction are besides some what involved in osteogenic distinction [ 62, 63 ] . Hence, the challenge is to happen an optimized elusive combination of these assorted cytokines and growing factors that would assist in distinction specifically toward the chondrogenic line of descent. Among the most powerful inducers of chondrogenic distinction are members of the transforming growing factor beta ( TGF-I? ) household. Besides the assorted iso-forms of TGF-I? [ 64,66-67 ] and bone morphogenetic protein ( BMP ) [ 65,68 ] , other members of the TGF-I? ace household include activin [ 69 ] , osteogenic protein-1 [ 70 ] , and growing distinction factor 5 ( GDF-5 ) [ 71 ] are used. The effects of cytokines of the TGF-I? ace household on chondrogenic distinction are transduced through two major intracellular signaling tracts, SMAD household of signaling molecules [ 72 ] and involves mitogen-activated protein kinase ( MAPK ) signaling [ 73 ] . Interestingly, both signaling Cascadess are activated by the same TGF-I? receptor composite. Barry et al demonstrated that TGF-I? 2 and TGF-I? 3 iso-forms have stronger chondrogenic potency than TGF-I?1 [ 78 ] . Kim et Al showed that combinations of greater doses of presently known growing factors, TGF-I? 2 and IGF-I, lead to a chondr ogenesis from ASCs comparable to that observed with BMSCs [ 79 ] . Another household of cytokines that plays an of import function in chondrogenesis is comprised of assorted iso-forms of fibroblast growing factor ( FGF ) . The effects of FGF on chondrogenic distinction are transduced chiefly through MAPK signaling [ 74 ] . This leads to increased look of the written text factor Sox9, which is the maestro regulator of chondrogenesis. Besides the TGF-I? and FGF household of cytokines, insulin like growing factor-1 ( IGF-1 ) [ 75-77 ] has besides been shown to hold effects on chondrogenic distinction.4.2 Effect of biomaterial scaffolds ( biologic, biochemical and biomechanical belongingss ) on ChondrogenesisA broad scope of scaffolds have been used in gristle tissue technology surveies. Cartilage regeneration utilizing scaffolds involves seeding extremely porous biodegradable scaffolds with donor cells and/or growing factors. After seeding the scaffolds with the giver cells and/or grow ing factors, these scaffolds are implanted. Cells attached to the scaffold, so retroflex, distinguish into chondrogenic cells and form into normal healthy bone as the scaffold degrades. These scaffolds may be categorized with regard to the types of stuff used ( natural or man-made, degradable or non-degradable ) , the geometry of the scaffold ( gels, hempen meshes or porous sponges ) and their construction ( entire porousness, pore size, connectivity and distribution ; [ 103 ] . It is important that a tissue technology scaffold is fabricated from a stuff that is biocompatible, allows fond regard of cells, ECM secernment and tissue formation without the initiation of an inflammatory or toxic response [ 104 ] . In order for cells to be able to infiltrate the construction uniformly, it should incorporate a big figure of interrelated pores [ 105 ] . The size of the pores is of import to the infiltration and fond regard of the cells, for chondrocytes an optimal pore size of between 100 a nd 200I?m has been suggested [ 104 ] . The scaffold must besides be permeable, to let diffusion of foods into the matrix and the remotion of metabolic and degradation byproducts from it. Finally, it is of import that the scaffold has mechanical belongingss that allow it to defy nidation and the tonss experienced in vivo Many natural stuffs have been used because of their similarity with gristle ECM constituents, for illustration hyaluronan and collagen [ 106 ] . Other natural stuffs used in gristle tissue technology surveies include agarose, alginate and chitosan. Natural polymers are advantageous in tissue technology applications as they can undergo cell-specific interactions. The usage of natural stuffs, nevertheless, is limited by the big fluctuation between batches, the deficiency of big supplies for commercial usage and as they are frequently derived from non-human tissue they carry the hazard of reassigning pathogens [ 107 ] . Man-made polymers are frequently used in penchant to natural stuffs as it is possible to mass-produce polymers with custom-designed belongingss. Poly ( lactic acid ) ( PLA ) , poly ( glycolic acid ) ( PGA ) and co-polymers of PLA and PGA ( PLGA ) are normally used in tissue technology surveies as they have Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) blessing for usage within the human organic structure. Ideally a scaffold that is to be implanted into the human organic structure should be biodegradable ) and the debasement merchandises should be non-toxic [ 104 ] .4.3 Effect of hypoxia on chondrogenesisOxygen lack within gristle tissues induces a hypoxic province which affects chondrocyte map. Cells exposed to hypoxia respond in many ways by impacting cistron look, distinction, and programmed cell death [ 91 ] . Transcription factor HIF-1I ± is considered as a survival factor for bring oning in hypoxic environments which inhibits proliferation but increases ECM production in mesenchymal ro ot cells ( MSCs ) and chondrocytes [ 92, 93 ] . Conditional omission of the cistron encoding HIF-1I ± in chondrocytes consequences in programmed cell death in hypoxic countries [ 92 ] and besides well reduces the chondrogenic possible [ 94 ] , proposing that hypoxia-induced up-regulation HIF-1I ± supports chondrogenic committedness. HIF-2I ± has besides been shown to command hypoxia enhanced chondrogenesis through both SOX9 dependant and independent signaling tracts [ 95 ] . Thus, hypoxia enhances the chondrogenic potency of mesenchymal cell populations during the development phase and under diseased conditions.4.4 Effect of hydrostatic force per unit area on chondrogenesisHydrostatic force per unit area has been proved to hold positive consequence on gristle in a figure of surveies [ 80 ] as exposure to increased hydrostatic force per unit area coincide with increased gristle thickness in vivo [ 81,82 ] . Cartilage is a extremely hydrous tissue, represent 70 % to 80 % H2O per moisture weight. Cartilage cells located in articular articulations experience hydrostatic force per unit area during periods of lading. The synovial fluid within the joint capsule transmits force per unit area to the H2O trapped within the gristle matrix, bring forthing a unvarying burden on chondrocytes in the tissue. The attractive force of negatively charged proteoglycan molecules within gristle causes its high H2O content, making a matrix that is composed chiefly of interstitial fluid. The swelling force per unit area of the proteoglycans is balanced by the tenseness of the collagen web, leting the tissue to swell significantly but still be a comparatively stiff stuff. High H2O content in the tissue plays a major function in the ability of the tissue to defy big compressive forces. Cartilage is incompressible under physiological degrees of hydrostatic force per unit area ( 7-10 MPa ) , ensuing in minimum tissue distortion [ 83-85 ] . Loading in this mode is comparatively safe for the structural unity of the tissue because it is a pure hydrostatic force per unit area that does non stretch or shear the tissue matrix. When gristle is loaded, the force is transmitted throughout the tissue, the fluid stage ab initio supports the applied burden, because H2O is trapped within the solid matrix of the tissue because of its low permeableness. The alteration in force per unit area from within the matrix finally forces fluid out of the tissue and into the synovial pit. The opposition that the fluid experiences as it leaves the matrix helps disperse energy and allows for a gradual softening of the tissue. This procedure efficaciously cushions the daze of a sudden burden without damaging the cells or extracellular matrix. The force per unit area that is produced by the tight fluid Acts of the Apostless uniformly on the chondrocytes within the matrix. This interstitial force per unit area, which for diarthrodial articulations ranges between 7 and 10 MPa during normal a ctivities [ 83,84 ] , is applied sporadically to the cells when walking, running, or switching weight while standing. Research workers emulated the mechanical stimulation in the research lab to engineer a higher quality gristle tissue [ 85-87 ] . The continuance and magnitude of hydrostatic lading vary widely as demonstrated by different surveies. Smith and associates exposed high-density chondrocyte monolayers to 10 MPa at 1Hz for 4h a twenty-four hours and obtained an addition of 65 % in GAG synthesis [ 88 ] . In another experiment utilizing the same lading regimen on cell monolayers, Smith and associates obtained a 9-fold addition in type II collagen messenger RNA and a 20-fold addition in aggrecan messenger RNA [ 89 ] . In a 3-dimensional experiment by Carver and Heath, concentrations of sulfated proteoglycans in civilized scaffolds were found to be twice every bit high as in controls after utilizing a 3.5-MPa, intermittent force ( 5/15 s on/off for 20 min every 4 H ) [ 90 ] . T hese consequences show that hydrostatic force per unit area is of import to chondrogenesis, particularly when cells are grown in a 3-dimensional environment.4.5 Effect of hyperosmolarity on chondrogenesisDuring mechanical burden, flow of H2O out of joint gristle will take to increase in osmotic force per unit area within the tissue. This indicates that osmotic force per unit area may positively act upon chondrogenesis. Osmotic force per unit area within the tissues additions due to the keeping of the extremely anionic proteoglycan and the necessary cationic counter ions and the osmotic force per unit area around the chondrocyte is changed straight by the burden on the tissue. Assorted surveies conducted to look into the effects of osmolarity on chondrocyte ECM synthesis shown that chondrocyte proteoglycan synthesis can be decreased through the application of hyper- or hypo-osmotic conditions [ 98,100,101 ] . Besides a survey conducted late explained that application of dynamic hypo- osmotic emphasiss resulted in increased look of gristle ECM cistrons [ 96 ] . The survey besides showed an addition in glycosaminoglycan synthesis by articular chondrocytes under hyperosmotic conditions [ 97 ] over 24h civilizations. It besides showed the demand for p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase ( MAPK ) signaling, a transduction pathway known to be regulated by osmolarity in many beings [ 99 ] . Besides Wouter et Al. in his recent survey demonstrated that the application of hyperosmolarity and hypoxia in combination, is able to bring on chondrogenesis in ASCs to the same degree as initiation with transforming growing factor I?1 [ 102 ] .5.0 Conclusion and future waiesThe usage of MSCs in gristle tissue technology applications is a powerful ( new ) tool in the development of clinical schemes for fix of site-specific gristle defects and will assist to handle assorted gristle upsets. Currently bone marrow aspirates are still considered to be the most accessible and enriched beginning of MSCs [ 6 ] . However, the sum of cells at initial crop are limited in bone marrow aspirations, which makes bone marrow non an optimum beginning of MSC [ 4,16 ] . Furthermore, the process of aggregation of bone marrow aspirates is a painful process and therefore other beginnings are preferred. As such adipose tissues have been identified as a beginning from which adequate chondrogenic primogenito r cells can be obtained at initial crop for research lab and clinical usage. It besides provides us an advantage of insulating adequate cells in a short sum of clip during tissue civilization enlargement. Adipose Stem Cells ( ASCs ) have the similar distinction potency, morphology, phenotype and cistron look as MSCs, as demonstrated by several surveies and are considered as a better beginning of multi-lineage mesoblastic root cells for tissue technology in regard to their copiousness and handiness [ 6,43 ] . In decision, we know that there are multiple root cell reservoirs available for gristle TE research and clinical applications ; we should see utilizing the reservoir that is ( I ) available in a big volume with limited morbidity of the environing tissue upon crop ; and ( two ) accessible without or with the lowest sum of hurting. Furthermore the reservoir should ( iii ) clasp cells which are capable of distinction into chondrocytes, produce gristle seeded on biomaterial like scaffolds and ( four ) can be detected by simple research lab methods. In my sentiment adipose tissue provides us menus better in comparing in all the above characteristics. However, to go on to take advantage of ASCs for gristle tissue technology and its applications we require a complete apprehension of how the care and distinction of ASCs are regulated both in vivo and in vitro. Though it is considered to hold greater possible and can be developed as a suited option to cram marrow, farther surveies in clinically relevant animate being theoretical accounts are needed for better proof. Besides regulative issues and safety facets should be addressed exhaustively in presymptomatic and clinical scenes. Standardization of protocols and sooner automated devices for isolation of ASCs need to be pursued with a proper set of surface markers to verify the presence of the right ASCs cells within the primary cell isolate. Future developments in biomaterial for scaffolds and bioreactor design for cell civilization will take without uncertainty to new vehicles for the bringing of ASCs to cartilage defect sites. Besides the development of optimum conditions such as h ypoxia and appropriate biophysical cues, hydrostatic force per unit area and hyperosmolarity for in vitro cultivation can further increase the chondrogenic committedness and the ability of these cells to intercede the coevals of de novo gristle tissue.

Comparative politics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Comparative politics - Research Paper Example ctions and public policies with particular focus on the relationship between political culture and individual or group behaviors as well as how the individual/group behaviors are related with public policy outputs. With regard to the relationship between political culture and individual and group behaviors, political culture significantly influences both individual and group behaviors in various countries. This is largely attributed to the fact that political culture deeply impacts on the way individuals see their political world and ultimately shape their behavior within their political world. For example, in a democratic political culture, individuals and the society in general often tend to actively participate in the political processes are pursue their interests freely as long as they do not infringe on the rights of others. Generally, in relations to individualistic view of governmental policies, political culture influences the individuals view of the practices of who gets what, when and how in the society. Contrastingly, in an authoritarian political culture, individuals are generally raised to believe that the interest of the state and the institutions serving the state overrides their individual interests and personal freedom1. For example, an empirical research conducted by Tezcà ¼r et al. (2012) to investigate the support for democracy in Iran revealed that the political culture in the country has a significant negative impact on the support for democracy in the Islamic State. Using a national survey, the researchers particularly found out that the dominant political culture in Iran is closely intertwined with religiosity and this has influenced the popular support for the Islamic regime and lower levels of support for democracy (Tezcà ¼r et al., 2012: 238). In the comparative public theoretical analysis, the groups in the political societies are easily influenced by the charismatic leaderships exhibited to the. Populist ideas of political cultures by

NCAA Division I Football Coach Compensation Thesis

NCAA Division I Football Coach Compensation - Thesis Example The paper tells that the agency theory postulates that the compensation that executives are given should be aligned to the performance of the executives. The initial perspective that centers on this issue is that the moral hazard calls for unobservable nature of the managerial efforts to run an organization. It is thought that the principal of a given organization such as football coaches design the compensation of the employees of the firm. In the course of designing the compensation of employees, managers aim at meeting the objectives of their agents and therefore deserve the high compensation. The second perspective that supports the compensation of executives to be aligned with the performance is that executives are faced with many difficult choices to choose from in order to solve firm issues. The fact that they are able to make the right choices, their efforts are unobservable and therefore should be paid higher amounts based on the performance. As noted by Core, John, Holthaus en and Larcker, the second perspective assures executives that they are responsible for designing compensation plan of agents to be contingent to the performance measures. To this end, executives are allowed to screen agents and ensure that they possess the heterogeneous ability required in the organization. Despite the two perspectives outlined above that promote the need for aligning the compensation of executives with their performance, division 1 coaches and other football coaches are not paid according to their performance. Both perspectives prescribe that the compensation of employees should be increase as the performance of the employees increase. However, Darrough and Melumad (73) note that there is a weak effect of agency theory on the performance measures of CEO and football coaches. In a study conducted by Jensen and Murphy (1990a), it was established that an increase in the value of shareholders by $1000 led to only a $3 increase in the compensation of CEOs. Therefore, i t was concluded that the compensation offered to CEO and football coaches is independent of their performance. This study seeks to establish whether the compensation of division-1 football coaches relies on their performance and whether it is related to compensation of CEOs. Problem Statement The compensation of most employees follows the agency theory, which postulates that the compensation of employees should follow their performance. An employee whose performance is high should receive a high compensation and vice versa. The need for the compensation to be aligned to the performance of the employee is based on the perspective of the moral hazard and that of the adverse selection. Despite these perspectives and the agency theory, not all employees are paid based on performance. For instance, the salaries of division one coaches and CEOs seems not to follow the agency theory given that an increase in the performance of the organization only leads to a small increase their pay (Bank er Plehn-Dujowich and Xian 56). This has led many scholars to conclude that the compensation of football coaches does not follow the agency theory. Moreover, in some cases, the compensation of the coaches is not aligned to that of CEOs of other firms (Bushman Indjejikian and Smith 56). Due to these issues, it is necessary to determine the factors that affect the compensation of division 1 coaches in NCAA. The division 1 football coach compensation is affected by other factors apart from the performance such as the training of the coach, the level of employment whether the coach is an overall coach or a coach that coaches only a given group such as forwards, center or backwards. This study seeks to establish the specific factors that are responsible for the compensation of division 1 coaches in the U.S. Study Objectives This study seeks to establish the factors that affect the compensation of division one football coaches in the U.

A letter in favor of your proposed changes to Magarena Assignment

A letter in favor of your proposed changes to Magarena - Assignment Example The ubeefx project development team had a few objectives that aimed at during their development strategies. Giving the game an outstanding user interface, was one such objective that development team had. In addition, attaining an overall stability of the entire program was another key goal of the development team. However, it is quite true to say that some of these goals by the development team were attained, while the many others were far much behind from being attained. This is evidenced from the many feedbacks received from the fantasy game users. â€Å"Magarena† basically entails playing a duel against the computer. In order for one to efficiently play the game, there are quite a number of requirements that are ought to be met. First, it is worth noting that the games can be run on most computers but not all computers. The minimum specific requirements that should be met in order to effectively initiate the game are; a minimum screen resolution of 1024*768 and java run time 6. In addition to this, running the game into one’s computer is quite an uphill task. This made the game to be termed by many as user unfriendly. The quality of the current interface is also below the bench mark standards. The program also lacks many additional features such as multiplayer and online play. Compared to the many modern games, this is far much below the benchmarked standards. The incorporated artificial intelligence in the program cannot be said to be below the acceptable standards. This is because of the numerous inconsistencies seen in the entire program. The artificial intelligence, being a key feature in the game needs to be upgraded at all costs so as to enhance efficiency and effectiveness of the of the program. From the numerous loopholes seen the game, it is evident that a lot needs to be done in the development of â€Å"Magarena†. The entire development team needs to instill some

The First World War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The First World War - Essay Example Though historians find it very difficult to pinpoint one particular event or one particular day when the war trigger was put on. But the events of June 28, 1914 are still remembered as a turning point (Turner, 1970). It is on this day that, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife were assassinated (it was their wedding anniversary) in Sarajevo, Bosnia by a Serbian nationalist student. This province had been under Austro-Hungarian Empire since 1908. After this assassination, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, followed by the Russian Mobilization the next day. Increasing emphasis on militarism led to the development of new weapons. Simultaneously the emergence of trench warfare made the Great War the bloodiest conflict the world had known (The Birmingham Post, 2004) The rise of German power after 1870 and its Imperialistic designs: Germany used to be a loose confederation of independent states till 1870. On January 18, 1871, these states united under a Prussian king who had the title â€Å"Kaiser, of the German Empire†. Bismarck was the first Chancellor or Prime Minister of the unified Germany. This resulted in gradual expansion of Germany and alternation of distribution of power within Europe and a new world order (Henig, 2002). This period referred to as the German Second Reich gave rise to some imperialist designs of Germans. When Austria-Hungary decided to go after Serbia, Germans gave them a silent nod with an assurance of backing it with its firepower if the need arises. There were elements within German establishment who were planning for a showdown with Russia, another big power within the region at that time. But Otto von Bismarck, the

The rights of prisoners of Wars in Afghanistan from 2001-2014 Thesis

The rights of prisoners of Wars in Afghanistan from 2001-2014 - Thesis Example It is in that spirit of distrust that the bloodiest conflicts known throughout history have been fought and decided. It is within this same vein that the current war in Afghanistan wages on after nearly 13 years of conflict. With prisoners being taken on both sides, it is important that certain rules of conduct designed to protect the integrity of battle be followed, yet it appears that this is far from reality. This study takes an in-depth look at the treatment being inflicted upon Afghan prisoners of War at the hands of the Allied forces. It is important to consider that these prisoners are being treated unjustly, without regard for basic human rights, and with little regard for commonly accepted practiced rules of engagement. It is important to concur a critical analysis of current American policy in Afghanistan, and the various tactics being utilised to intervene in the conflict itself. There are many who object to what is taking place at hands of the American military in relationship to insurgent rights. This includes the rights of prisoners, particularly those at the Bagram Airbase Prison and those being housed at Guantanamo Bay. Many that live in Afghanistan have reported on the methods utilised by the American military in this war, many of which have been determined to be illegal and cruel (Abunimah 13). Military members are often seen to be entering civilian villages and houses to conduct random searches, all the hill women and children are inside crying and screaming out at the injustice of it all. As a result of these action, the insurgency rages on as the Afghan people have begun to develop a fierce anger towards much of the international community. There is an obvious tactic being employed by the United States to capture known members of the Taliban or Al-Qaeda, making them de facto prisoners of war. In essence, this strips

Knowledge Is the True Organ of Sight, not the Eyes Essay

Knowledge Is the True Organ of Sight, not the Eyes - Essay Example Quoting Plato’s cave example, Falzon (2002) explains that like Plato’s compelling image of the cave, normal human beings tend to imagine things or believe in things that might merely be shadows or mere appearance, and that real-world could be something very different. Knowledge gained through senses creates images that humans tend to imagine again and again, which might not correlate with reality most of the times. Therefore, knowledge gained through senses might not be appropriate in all situations. Instead, knowledge gained through understanding and rationality helps in misinterpreting the information that senses perceive. It is interesting to note that what we see produces limited knowledge as the information involved is limited; but, what we observe imbibes greater knowledge and information. For example, Placher (1983; p.154) quotes the example of Aquinas's argument that explained how human beings see the changes in the world; but they realize that the changes happe ning in any object is because of changes happening elsewhere. The ability to see the changes happening elsewhere is observation. This observation is important for gaining an understanding of what is happening and its source as well as its outcome. In this manner, distinct events can be related and thus an understanding can be gained, which ultimately leads to improved knowledge.  

Reflection Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 6

Reflection Paper - Essay Example This also creates an ambience where markets, labour and communities are able to function in harmony. Organizational responsibility also involves social investment which has become a necessary part of any business. Transparency of business in the social and environmental context has helped to gain public trust and recognition. Today, organizational responsibility has a much wider implication than merely providing jobs and contributing to the economy through taxes and employment. The concept of organisation responsibilities has been widening over the years. According to surveys, developing a good corporate socially responsible strategy can deliver real business benefits. Three steps are involved in the process of making ethical decisions. These are: moral awareness, moral judgment and ethical behavior. Moral awareness involves identifying the dilemma in ethics. Moral judgment is the acumen required to decide between the right and the wrong. Lastly, ethical behavior means choosing the right course of action. Corporate reputation is the esteem with which an organisation is held by its internal and external stakeholders. The stakeholders base their notion on the company’s past actions, profitability and future behavior. Very often, organizations overlook the importance of having a good corporate reputation and concentrate on other urgencies. But, this does not help in the long run. It is seen that organizations which have focused more on building their own goodwill have succeeded more than others. They have considered their â€Å"goodwill† to be the most valuable asset of their organisation. Some of the benefits of a good corporate reputation are as follows. Economic responsibilities, legal responsibilities, ethical responsibilities and philanthropic responsibilities are the four components of the corporate social responsibility pyramid. Economic responsibilities

Fast food restaurant Essay Example for Free

Fast food restaurant Essay All such food is categorized as fast food which can be prepared and served quickly. Restaurants and kiosks provide fast food with precooked or preheated ingredients and usually served at a packaged form (Pollan, 2009). In the beginning, American hamburger and fries was considered as the traditional fast food but now the field has been widely diversified and food like pizzas, fish and chips, burgers from McDonalds and Kentucky Fried Chicken etc. are all considered fast food. Fast food market has shown an enormous and steady growth. In 2006 alone the market has reached to $102. 4 billion with an annual growth rate of 4. 8% (Adams, 2007). Fast food chains like McDonalds operate in more than 126 countries in six continents having more than 31,000 restaurants globally (Arndt, 2007). Burger King, another worldwide fast food chain, has operations in more than 65 countries of the world; KFC restaurants located over 25 countries, Subways is present in 90 countries with total 39,129 restaurants and so and so forth (Buthrie, Lin Frazao, 2002). However, according to most of researches, fast food is not at all fit for health and can cause serious problems. According to Marion Nestle, Chair of New York University’s Department of Nutrition, Food Studies, and Public Health, â€Å"the increased calories in American diets come from eating more food in general, but especially more of foods high in fat (meat, dairy, fried foods, grain dishes with added fat), sugar (soft drinks, juice drinks, desserts), and salt (snack foods)† (Nestle, 2002; p. 10). This report discusses some positive as well as negative points of taking fast food. Reasons for popularity Before delving into the positive and negative aspects of fast food, it seems appropriate if we discuss the reasons of fast food popularity. The question is what compels the Americans to eat such poorly balanced food? The answer of the question is not simple and involves many factors. First of all, every culture has its own values, philosophies, and the way to react to the things occurring in their lives. These reactions depend upon the culture they belong too. In present family structure and busy life it has been observed that the increasing communication deficit between parents and children has created a gulf between parents and children. This changed life style, especially in low-income and single-parent families, has compelled the children to take unhealthy and junk food more often than required (Ritzer, 2000). Advertising also played a major role in increasing the fast food popularity in America. According to National Cancer Institute, â€Å"Commercial advertisers have learned that a consistent and prominent presence in the marketplace is key to achieving and holding market share† (National Cancer Institute, 2000). Statistics revealed that in 2004 the total expenditure of different food items including fast food restaurants was approximately $11. 26 billion. Fast food advertisers target ethnic minorities directly through their own media outlets and programs. Food items which are advertised for ethnic minorities are usually unbalanced and unhealthy as compared to the food advertised for general audience (Reyes, 2005). Research conducted in 2005 depicted that more than 52 percent of food items advertisement published in Hispanic fashion and social magazines were advertised unhealthy and unbalanced food as compared to 29 percent such advertisements published in general magazines (Duerksen et.al. , 2005). Fast food items advertising usually target children in order to create and establish brand loyalty at an early age (Wiecha et al. , 2006). Among the six brands which have enjoyed very strong recognition in children, four are related to food, i. e. Cheerios, McDonald’s, Pop-Tarts, and Coke (Comiteau, 2003). These companies relied on the fact that the children would emotionally connected to these companies even in their adulthood (Comiteau, 2003). Nevertheless, recent research shows that consumers prefer to buy fast food from supermarkets. Because they have the perception that supermarkets provide healthier food options ( Advertising and marketing very significantly influence the buying behavior of people and the notion cannot be rejected in totality that frequent use of this unhealthy food is a major cause of increasing obesity. According to a study, television advertisements and television viewing is directly associated with popularity of junk food (Bowman et al. , 2004). Advantages of using fast food The basic and most obvious advantage of fast food is its cost and speed. Fast food is very easy and quick to prepare and serve. As discussed above, the number of single parent household is continuously increasing in United States. Such single parents not only have to work to earn a respectable living but also have to prepare food for the family. For such persons fast food is an easy and cost effective solution. Fast food not only prepared at home easily but can also be ordered from fast food restaurants which usually have special offers and deals available to make it cheaper or more cost effective. Fast food comprises and enjoys the biggest chunk of food industry. It has, in United States alone, sale of $120 billion with the help of more than 200,000 restaurants. Fast food industry has been very successful in term of operation expansion by utilizing international franchising. The administration of different fast food companies have learned by the passage of time how to make the most of the sales potential of a fast food franchise by practically adopting an idea by giving it a functional methodology. This is one main cause why fast food franchises have been a symbol of success among the contemporary food businesses. Fast food industry gives minimal wages and financial benefits to their workers (McDonald’s Australia); nevertheless, it provides jobs to approximately 3. 5 million people.

Contribution of Schools to Child Health and Wellbeing

Contribution of Schools to Child Health and Wellbeing Critically discuss the contribution that schools can make to children’s health and wellbeing. As a society we want the best for our children to enable them to grow and develop into healthy human beings. Looking at their wellbeing gives an overview of the person as a whole and their identity in society, and how we can ensure that they are given the best start in life and assist to maximise each child’s potential. This aspect is supported by the United Nation Convention on the rights of the child’s (1989) citied in Collins Foley 2008. This convention in many articles focus on the child ensuring that they have a say in their health and wellbeing giving them the best start to life. Kamerman and Kahn (2003) highlights the importance of child welfare and talks about ‘human capital’. As educators we have a large role in providing for all children giving them the best opportunities in life. There are many factors that can influence the health and wellbeing of children. Research has shown that early childhood experience has a significant impact on childhood development and how they continue into adulthood. As Vygotsky (1978) identified, children from a very young age can learn and develop new capacities through the collaboration and interaction with adults. (Citied in connecting with children; developing working relationships). Learning Guide 5 Activity 5.2 and watching the DVD on children’s participation brings to light how we as adults should listen more to children and permit children to have more of a say. On the video it identifies when children are given the opportunity to participate, it enhances their confidence and self-esteem to be part of society. When looking at children’s health and wellbeing it is important to look at how they identify themselves. As Cooley (1902) studies show how children develop and how they participated in society depends on what they feel about themselves and how other’s perceive and act towards them. As a foster carer for children with special needs I can relate too this as people can look at their disability instead of the person they are. Like Louis (foley 2008) the first identity is the disability. This identity can have an impact on health and well-being. In my role as foster career I found that the child I had on a long term basis was considered as having serve needs and labelled as difficult. In contrast when given the opportunity and not looking at her disability she was quite able. As adults we can influence the child’s identify and relate to this disability rather than the whole person. If we looked at wellbeing and health and not the disability would this change his outlo ok on life? Bennett and Sani 2004 p.g13 studies support this aspect as they talk about how changes can change our identity and how we are looked upon. As adults we can become engaged in the disability and unknown to ourselves we may label this child as disabled and think we know what is best. It can be criticised that the labelling or identifying a child’s disability can be positive in not only the home but in school as they are able to avail of better services e.g. the school get funding of a one to one assistant attending, having outside agencies like speech theorist etc.. In my own setting it is benefited when having a child’s special needs recognised as it relieves some of the pressures having an extra member and extra support when required The identity of a child can steer us as practitioners to how we contribute to the child’s health and wellbeing. In the school setting we have to be open minded and considerate of the home environment, the child’sculture, relationships and family life. These factors all coincide to contribute to the health and well-being of the child. The child identity can change depending on the situation and the environment. Children’s voices can change depending on the opportunities they are given and how we as a society recognise the child. This is supported by Bennett and Sani 2004 studies and shows it takes time to get familiar with a person. Children’s social backgrounds can have a large influence on their health and wellbeing. Poverty unfortunately has a negative effect on children’s health and wellbeing. When looking at the Millennium Cohort (Dex and Joshi) study in the UK it came to myattention thatis a high percentage of our children are in poor health and wellbeing. The institute of Education (2007) studies showed how children’s cognitive development assessments showed higher scores from families of stable employment. Poverty in the home has an ongoing effect on the child’s health and wellbeing. Children can be labelled as being poor carrying with them throughout school. Ridge’s study (2006) shows how children’s self-confidence and feeling of belonging within their social network can be affected. Children can feel left behind when parents can’t afford the latest trend be it clothes or latest technology. Children’s social wellbeing is affected when they are unab le to attend social outings with their peers andthis may cause a child to become withdrawn from the group of friends and experience a feeing of isolated. Schools provide a large contribution to children’s health and wellbeing through support in all areas. Children can feel valued by the interaction of praise and achievement, having the opportunity of healthy snacks, warmth and intellectual stimulation. In my own setting we can see the contribution to a child health by providing that simple healthy snack. This is beneficial for some children, not necessarily from an unprivileged back ground, but simple not having the time to ensuring that their child has eaten breakfast or lunch before arriving at nursery. Moss (2006) believes listening to children as part of ethical practices is extremely important and it is a vital part to the wellbeing of children. If children are not given the opportunity to speak and be listened to they cant be expected to fit into society. Practitioners have an important role in promoting and develop children’s emotional wellbeing. Billington and Pomerantz 2004 talked about the importance of circle time and how this leads to the building of confidence with children. Circle time allows children to feel included as part of a group and helps to build self-confidence and belief in their ideas. Being critical of this it can also devalue children as they may feel under treat and find circle time intrusive. As practitioners we have to judge the situation and look at what suit the individual child. As an early years practitioner I feel it is equally important for children to have free play where they can form own relationships without the influences of staff allowing children time to explore their own emotional. We have a critical role in ensuring that all children are listened to and voices not been silent. Children’s first-hand experience can change their perspective and it only takes that one individual to provide a positive artiest for change in a child’s well-being and health. Schools provide the opportunity for children to interact with a broadend section of society and benefits childrens opinion on society. One teacher may have a significant effect on a child’s well-being inclusive of all the other factors preventive to the child’s life. For example the famous story of Helen Killer (1968) who’s life was wasting away until she meet Anne. Anne changed her life by believing in her and through her inspiring work developed her health and wel lbeing and her life as a whole. Today Helen is well known for her work and the dedicated work she did helping others. It can be clearly seen how changes in society changes our views and opinions on how to give children the best health and wellbeing. This can be demonstrated in modern society with more services readily available and working in partnership with agencies to support children’s needs. Children’s first experiences are seen as criticalto later development. While schools provide the best health and wellbeing for children, the dilemma many teachers face is not being able to reach out to all children due to lack of parental support and consent alongside time factors and funding. Learning guide 11.6 looks at how agencies work together and try to give each other as much support as possible Lynne talks about her role as a health visitor and how this contributes to children’s health and wellbeing, while her role is as vital as practitioners in a school setting our hands can be tied and barriers in our way not allowing us to avail of these services. In my role as a pre-school leader the partnership is important between schools and health visitors, however without parental consent we cannot work with outside agencies provided to others.. While it is seen from the government that the childs health and wellbeing are top priority and as a society we draw up policies to ensure legislation meets their needs. It is seen how Tony Blair and Gordon Brown have looked at family lives and helping with back to work systems which will benefit children’s health and confidence along with their general wellbeing. The new government has looked at the roots of the problems and putting services into place to reshaping services. The sure start programme has increased the help for families from deprived areas, provided well needed services for example parenting class, 2 year old programmes etc While this has been a positive input it can be critically argued that it not necessary always being for families from deprived areas needing help but working families too can need as much attention. In my own setting it can be seen that full time working parents need as much help at times with parenting skills as other less well off families. Their careers can leave pressures on families and just having extra support can help their anxiety and any worries they may face as their children develop. While the United Nation Convention on the rights of the child’s (1989) citied in Collins Foley 2008 report focuses on six key areas: material, wellbeing, health and safety, educational wellbeing, family and peer relationship it can be critically said that this is not always possible and feasible for those who require it. Looking at education sector the number of children with special needs has risen and funding has had a cut back therefore all needs are not met as they should be. In my own setting due to funding and the demand on other agencies it is not always possible to get a child with special needs an assessment before school age. While these children’s needs are not being met not only is their pressure on the workplace but the child’s health and well-being is being deprived. Children who haven’t got English as a first language suffer due to the lack of resources available in society for them. As educators we work on the legal documents and in writin g state what is needed for our children however in reality this depends on funding and government support. When looking at a child’s health and well-being they interweve with one an another so when a school struggles to gett help with a child’s physical needs their emotional health can is also effected in many instances. Giddens (1998) looked at the needs of our children and how investment is put into all areas of the children’s health and wellbeing looking at the full picture. This has shown improvement with the rest 10-Year Strategy (2009). Children are given and entitled to free pre-school education which has been a positive step in the health and wellbeing of all children. In my own setting we have a role as practitioners to ensure we promote diversity and inclusion. This comes from the UN Convention on The Right of the child (1989), which supports the right for children to grow up in a farmiliar surrounding which is characterised by equality and free from any form of discrimination due to colour, race, sex, language, relation etc†¦ (Article Two (www.unicef.org/crc/). In my own setting this is not only done to ensure that all children are treated equally but also with the use of our Media Initiative programme. This programme was developed to provide children with the opportunity to explore similarities and differences and developing the child in an appropriate way, using age appropriate resources. This has found to be of benefit to children who infinity themselves as different and helps them to feel included in the setting. Over the years there has been considerable work done in relation to Childrens health and wellbeing policy documents. UNICEF was one of the largest pieces of legislation from which a number a policies was drawn from. When looking at the policies throughout the UK it can be seen that while different countries have their own policy, there main objectives being the best services for the health and wellbeing of our children can be found in them all. A lot of changes have come about due to major cases of poor services which have result to child death some high profile media cases throughout the mediafor example;. Baby P, Victoria Climbe and most recently Tiffany Wright. As work continues in improving the local services to children the health and welfare of the children remains upmostimportance and with this high priority we will hopefully see an increase in more agencies working together to improving services. In conclusion to the question on looking at what contribution that school can be seen how all agencies have an important role. Legislation over the years has changed giving children the right to an opinionon their health and wellbeing. One quote from the UNICEF Report Card 7 to me evaluates children health and wellbeing and is very key that the nation is key to the support children are provided with. Health and safety is a majoy aspect in UNICEF’s ideas and their material security and educational needs is focused on aswell as socialisation. UNICEF have strong beliefs on the sdense of being loved and being valved from society and people around them and included in the families and society in which they are brought up in. Collins Foley 2008) As practitioner we have a duty of care in the wellbeing of children by working for the child in partnership with their parents and other available agencies to ensure that the child is given the best start to life allowing them to continue in to adulthood. All children no matter of their background or abilities should be given the same opportunities and say to their rights. The time it takes or the funding needed shouldn’t determent the quality of services for a child health and well-being to be met. Bibliography Everyday Costs of Poverty in Childhood: A Review of Qualitative Research Exploring the Lives and Experiences of Low-Income Children in the UK Tess Ridge Department of Social and Policy Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, UK Child poverty in perspective: An overview of child well-being in rich countries  © The United Nations Children’s Fund, 2007 UNICEF, Child poverty in perspective: An overview of child well-being in rich countries, Innocenti Report Card 7, 2007 UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Florence en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Keller www.unicef.org/crc/)

parent teacher relationships Essay -- essays research papers

How often would you say you raise questions about what your child’s/youngest child’s teacher is doing to provide an education for your child? Have you done anything to get to know your child’s teacher or teachers? Have you done anything to get to know your child’s teacher or teachers? Have you done anything to help your child’s teacher or teachers get to know your child and his or her strengths, weaknesses, likes and dislikes? How well do you think you understand what is expected of you as a parent or guardian by your child’s teacher or teachers? Thinking about your involvement with your child’s school, would you say you feel like an insider or an outsider? Do you feel like you are a full partner in the process of educating your child, or would you say that your involvement in your child’s education is less than that? Students are usually given grades of A, B, C, D or F to describe the quality of their work .... [H]ow would you grade the school your child/youngest child attends? Are you a parent, guardian, or grandparent who is responsible for providing fairly regular parenting care for one or more children who are school age or younger? What grade or grades are your children in? How often do you attend parent-teacher conferences – all the time, most of the time, sometimes, seldom or never? Generally speaking, how productive would you say parent-teacher conferences are for you - very productive, mostly productive, only a little productive, or not productive at al...

Drinking, Driving,parties, And Commonsensical Solutions Essay -- Drunk

Drinking and driving is the number one killer of teenagers in America. Because of it, the teenage group is the only age group who’s number of deaths are increasing instead of decreasing. Outright denying teens of alcohol doesn’t work. That just makes young adults want alcohol even more. What’s sad about drinking under the influence cases is that every one of them could have been easily prevented. So, if you cannot deny adolescences of alcohol, why not just educate them on simple precautions that can be taken to prevent drinking and driving.One of the best and oldest ways to stop drinking under the influence is having a designated driver. It’s not a hard thing to do. Just asking someone responsible to accompany you to a party (or whatever it may be) in which you know there will be alcohol. If you don’t know if there will be alcoholic beverages served, take a responsible friend anyway just to make sure.Another good way to keep yourself from being a DUI case is to clear out your car of anything distracting. When you’re drunk, simple things can give you an incredible amount of entertainment. So, clean out your car from fuzzy dice, cellular phones, anything that can distract you. Studies show that just by doing this, your chance of having an accident can be decreased by over 25%. So, you’re already at the party and drinking beer. What can you do? For starters, you can try eating high protein food like meat, cheese, and peanuts. Foods that are rich in protein can help absorb...

Public Relations in Professional Sports Essay example -- Professional

Public Relations in Professional Sports "If industry is to be successful in dealing with public opinion . . . it must learn the language of the people, it must consider the study of public opinion as important as any phase of its operations. It must recognize that public opinion can be measured, and utilize the increasingly scientific methods developing today for gauging it"(Ross) PR today, has undergone a massive restructuring and organization and is now gaining recognition worldwide. An offshoot of this is PR in sports. The sports industry in the U.S. generates $213 - $350 billion a year as revenues and is growing by the day (ESPN). Everyone tries to cash in on their benefits. Sports PR have come a long way. Today it is far more dynamic and complex. Public Relations is a very broad industry, serving a wide variety of institutions in society such as businesses, trade unions, government agencies, voluntary associations, foundations, hospitals, schools, colleges, and sports teams. Sports in the last fifty years have changed an amazing amount. It used to be just two teams playing against each other strictly for the love of the sport and for the enjoyment of the few people in attendance. As time went on and attendance and interest in professional sports grew so did the cash flow. Teams began adding more coaches as well scouts. It became obvious that a font office staff was needed to take care of the day to day operations of sports teams. In the 1940s baseball owner Bill Veeck changed the games even more when he promised the game to be the least exciting part of the evening. He hosting Ladies’ Night, Fireworks Fridays, and a Disco Demolition Night in which he blew up a pile of old records, Veeck brought sports into a new era (Veeck & Linn, 1962). Bill Veeck was the first true PR man in sports. He sold out stadium after stadium, in several different cities. The sports PR which Bill Veeck started has now evolved and is a much different brand of PR then every other industry. In order for an Athletic team to have effective PR, they require very large in-house staffs which are very diverse in there job descriptions and responsibilities. The first and broadest group is the basic public relations staff. The basic public relations staff takes care of the basic day to day of the organization. They are the people who write and release the updates on the team to ... ...Bernie Parent spoke to the sell-out crowd of 17,000 while Pelle’s #31 hung in black above the ice. The spoke about the positives that Pelle gave Philadelphia and there was no mention of alcohol. The PR director at the time, Joe Kadlac made sure that Pelle’s death would not look bad on the team for allowing him to drink and drive but instead showed he was a team player. A fan in the upper level had a sign that simply read, â€Å"Get Pelle’s Name On The Cup, Its His Last Chance.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Public Relations are a critical part of sports. It is what puts people in the seats pays the athletes and builds the stadiums. Public Relations are what make sports what it is today. If it were not for today’s ever changing public relations industry sports would not be what they are today. Sources Bill Veeck with Ed Linn, â€Å"Veeck--As in Wreck†, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1962 The Baseball Library T.J. Ross, The Public Relations Problem of Industry, American Management Series (New York, 1937), pp. 6--9. Crafting the national pastime's image: The history of major league baseball public relations William B Anderson. Journalism and Communication Monographs. Columbia: Spring 2003. Vol. 5, Iss. 1; pg. 5

Agriculture Industry Overview

Industry Overview From the birth of the nation, farming has played a crucial role in the U. S. economy. Initially European agricultural practices were adopted while settlers from the area began to populate the Americas. Agriculture in Colonial America was important to society because it was the primary livelihood for 90% of the population, and most of the farms were specifically used to create food for family use. As settlers moved west, they took advantage of the cooler climate to grow wheat, leading to the â€Å"wheat frontier. † In the south, cotton and tobacco served as the regions cash crop.Industrialization and urbanization soon changed the agricultural industry into a lucrative market. The lucrative agricultural market has attracted over twenty two million American workers to produce, process, sell and trade the nation's food and fiber. Currently there are only 4. 6 million people who actually live on a farm. These farmers earn a fourth of the food profit, while the rem aining profit is used for costs beyond the farm gate: wages and materials for production, processing, marketing, transportation and distribution.Forty-two percent of America’s total land area is still actively used as farmland, which mainly yields soybeans, wheat, and corn. Livestock is also raised on the land and primarily includes dairy/beef cattle, swine, poultry, and sheep. Customer preferences regarding agriculture have also affected the industry. Today’s customers are more health conscious. Consumers now prefer the limited use of pesticides, hormones, and other chemicals. Family farms are able to produce the preferred organic products, but for an increased price.Although consumers prefer the family farm because it fits their vision for good food, the corporate farms must exist in order to provide for the growing population. Even though corporate farms are allowed to use chemicals, they must use the crop protectants effectively and safely, in amounts that are no m ore than what is necessary to combat pests and diseases. Governance of the agricultural industry is both and federal and local responsibility. The U. S. Farm Bill is the primary agricultural and food policy tool of the federal government.United States Department of Agriculture reviews the comprehensive omnibus bill almost every five years and then passes necessary amendments through congress. The laws and government support are very different for the agricultural industry compared to other industries. For example, the U. S. provides aid for agriculture including research into crop types and regional suitability as well as many kinds of subsidies, some price supports and loan programs. Also farmers are not subject to production quotas.Lastly workplace laws regarding child labor and immigrant labor are exceedingly lax in the agricultural industry. Exemptions are made for children working on their family farm, and immigrants can more easily acquire agricultural work permits. Economic c onditions for the past several years have been poor. Even though other industries are suffering, the agricultural industry is thriving. The dollar depreciation actually allowed for cheaper prices for foreign countries, and therefore caused exports to increase.The growing population and limited land in Asia has also caused an increased number of exports from the U. S. agricultural industry. Russia recently experienced unusually high temperatures that caused a drought and killed a majority of the crops. The U. S. will be able to use this event to their advantage to once again increase exports. In order to take advantage of opportunities within the industry, farms can expect to increase the agricultural output in order to make a larger profit.

Interaction between Humans and the Environment Essay

Interaction between Humans and the Environment The relationship between humans and the environment has changed over time because of technological advancements and innovations. During the beginning of human time the people was mainly nomadic; they hunted for food and travel around in packs. Fast forward a couple centuries the interaction between humans and the environment changed from being primarily hunting and gathering to being primarily farm heavy. Lastly in the twentieth century the relationship between humans and the environment has changed due to industrialization which led to humans exploiting the environment and polluting it. At the beginning, everyone was nomadic roaming from one region to the next scavenging for food, because of the lack of technology. It wasn’t until the first Agriculture Revolution occurred that the people change their lifestyle. The agriculture revolution led to the change in human lifestyle. For example: people began to settle down, start farms, and start to live by water sources so they could irrigate the land in order to farm. The Agricultural Revolution also sparked the domestication of animals and plants allowing a large amount of food to be produce at any time. This led to a larger population and eventually led to the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was when the interaction between humans and the environment turned sour due to the exploitation of the environment for natural resources. The Industrial Revolution caused imperialism which was regions being colonized for their natural resources. This was one of the causes of the World Wars, which was the war of attrition – the fight for natural resources. The wars caused a lot of pollution and the war also caused a lot of natural resources to be used to fight it. But in the modern day there are many â€Å"green† projects that we used in order to preserve our natural resources and save the environment.

College Success and Personal Responsibility Essay

Honesty is the key component in personal responsibility because it shows that an individual can be trusted with key information or completion of homework assignments. There is a strong belief that one’s word is their bond, meaning what the individual states or a claim is valid and true. Other essential components to personal responsibility are dependability, positive attitudes, and professional competence. Some people say that an individual’s character holds a higher value in personal responsibility over honesty, dependability, or a positive attitude. Everyone will have a different definition regarding what personal responsibility means to them. I would define personal responsibility as honesty, dependability, a positive attitude in every aspect of my life, and professional competence. To even further define what personal responsibility means to me, I would need to explain what the words â€Å"personal† and â€Å"responsible† mean to me. Personal to me means that my actions and materials belong to me. Some examples of personal materials that belong to me are my laptop computer, my car, and my homework assignments. These are things that I have purchased or gifts that have been given to me, however my homework assignments are papers that I have written and not plagiarized. Some examples of my actions would be going back to school, completing tasks at work and going to the gym. These things may be in dollar value or just everyday activities that I do. To me responsibility to means that I have the ability to answer for my actions, knowledge of the possible consequences I could receive for my negative actions, accolades for the positive. As a child I was always taught cause and effect and how my actions would affect myself and others around me. The possible consequence of my action not to pay my monthly car payment is repossession of my vehicle. The long-term effect of such action is not having my own transportation to get to work, school, the gym, or any other locations that I may need to go to or want to go, as well as car insurance getting canceled. When an individual possesses the key elements of personal responsibility, the individual will succeed in areas such as professionalism and academics. Several years ago I took personal responsibility for granted. In my failure to be honest and dependable with my finances and health, I struggled and suffered greatly. In the early part of 2002, someone asked me, â€Å"Where did I think I would be at in my life 10 years from now†? I responded to them I do not know. Over the next several years I had allowed others to dictate to my finances, my personal belongings, and even my health. Yes, when you do not have a sense of personal responsibility, everything in your life becomes compromised. The first steps in taking responsibility is stop blaming others and accept that it is up to me to do better (â€Å"Taking personal responsibility,† 2011). Once I stopped blaming others for the downfalls in my life and started owning up to my own actions, I was better able to fully understand what personal responsibility was and what I needed to do. Because I took an active stand toward personal responsibility I was able to improve my finances, health, and other aspects of my life. You may be wondering how professional competence relates to personal responsibility. Professional competence is the ability to understand varied concepts and ideas and also be capable to accomplish tasks (whether school assignments or career tasks on the job) with little or no supervision (University of Phoenix, 2012). By applying professional competence in your academics you will exemplify high moral values in completing class assignments. You will show yourself, instructors, and employers that you have taken the time to do your own work to your utmost ability, and that you can develop new ideas on how to solve not only everyday problems but also new problems as well. The rewards that will be acquired in having personal responsibility and college success are unlimited. Some examples of the reward that go with personal responsibility and college success is completion of my degree program, earning a degree, or a plus is earning a degree with honors, and having the ability to apply the knowledge of my degree in my career field. Personal responsibility does not just apply to academic success; it also applies to career and general success. Gaining and maintaining college success is not only grades and attendance, but it does play a huge part in academic success. It also includes participation in class, group, and forum discussions and dedicating yourself to do your very best when completing assignments in an ethical and competent manner. According to the Quick hints, study tips for college success article published by the Miami Times â€Å"Studies show that students who study often and read their textbooks thoroughly earn better grades.† (â€Å"Quick hints, study tips for college success,† 2005). A student, who demonstrates personal responsibility in college, will gain administrative support from the university staff and instructor when it is needed and maybe even letters of recommendation. An employee who demonstrates personal responsibility in their career may receive bonuses for jobs well done, promotions into higher positions, and letters of recommendation. There are several methods I would use to maintain my personal responsibilities in my academic career. My top methods include maintaining a schedule, reading all material, arriving to class and team meetings on time, by seeking help through various resources, completing all work assignments in a timely and honest manner, and asking questions in class on material that I do not understand. Other methods may include â€Å"Create a good learning space, free from distraction; Take notes in text; and Return to the beginning and repeat the process† (â€Å"Quick hints, study tips for college success,† 2005). All these methods when combined, will not only help me in my education but also in my career by improving my knowledge of work given, meeting scheduled deadlines, meetings scheduled for specific times, and working as a trustworthy employee. Personal responsibility is more than honesty; it is dependability, positive attitudes, and professional competence. These factors are not just limited to academic success but also career and personal success in multiple aspects of your life. They can be used as guidelines for various learning and promotions in self and team enrichment. Therefore, personal responsibility has both positive and negative effects to yourself and those around you. By exemplifying high moral values in personal responsibility you will achieve success in everything you do. References Quick hints, study tips for college success. (2005, October). Miami Times, 83(7), 3B. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/363118060?accountid-35812 Taking personal responsibility. (2011, September). The Daily Gleaner. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/dovview/887612423?accountid=35812 University of Phoenix. (2012). Professional Competence. Retrieved from University of Phoenix, Gen200-Foundations for General Education and Professional Success website.

Muar 211 Study Guide

MUMedieval Period * Hildegard von Bingen: Columba aspexit * Genre = plainchant * Text = sacred, Latin * Texture: monophonic throughout * Performance practice: responsorially, that is, the performance alternates between a single singer (soloist) and the larger choir, which â€Å"responds† * The piece becomes more melismatic as it continues. * Ensemble: female vocal soloist, female vocal choir, droning instrument that plays out one note (the final) * Guillaume da Machaut: Dame, de qui toute ma joie vient * Genre = chanson (general term for French secular song) * Text = vernacular (language French), secular Texture = non-imitative polyphony (four voices with four independent melodies that never repeat the music of another voice part) Ensemble: a cappella Renaissance Period * Guillaume Dufay: Ave maris stella * Fauxbordon style: a form of harmonization in three parts in which the second line follows the top line a perfect fourth below. The voices are often â€Å"moving in parallel thirds,† a relatively new sound and texture at the time. * Based in the Dorian mode Homophonic/homophonic texture (multiple parts that move mostly in homorhytm, therefore creating a succession of chords) * The top line is an elaborated form of a Gregorian chant melody ie the top line is a cantus firmus. Latin * Genre: Hymn (harmonized hymn) b/c it is sacred and the same music is repeated over and over for changing verses of that sacred text * Josquin Desprez: Kyrie from Pange lingua Mass * Genre: Kyrie from a late Renaissance Mass * Texture: 4 part polyphony; imitative polyphony * Ensemble: a cappella; 4 part choir; SATB Text: Ancient, sacred Greek prayer (only part of Mass in Greek); First part of Mass Ordinary Baroque Period * H enry Purcell: â€Å"Thy hand Belinda† from Dido and Aeneas, Act III final scene. * Libretto is an abbreviated English-language adaptation (by librettist Nahum Tate) of an episode from the Aeneid, the Latin epic written by Virgil in the 1st century BC (between 29 and 19 BC) that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who traveled to Italy, where he became the mythical ancestor of the Romans. Aeneas and his men are shipwrecked at Carthage on the northern shore of Africa.Dido, the Queen of Carthage, and Aeneas fall in love, but Aeneas cannot forget that the gods have commanded him to continue his journey until he reaches Italy (where it has been foretold that he will found a great empire, Rome). A much as he hates to hurt his love, the Queen Dido, he knows that he must leave and continue his quest. He leaves, as heroes must. * In her grief, Dido decides she cannot live with her grief and slashes her wrists. She then sings the moving recitative â€Å"Thy hand, Belinda,â⠂¬  and the aria that follows (a Lament aria), which is the culminating point in the opera, followed by a final chorus * Homophonic Antonio Vivaldi: Violin Concerto in G, La stravanganza, op. 4 no. 2, first and second movements http://youtu. be/WftbiFpZszU * First movement: Spirito e non presto (spirited but not presto) The first movement of this work is a RITORNELLO FORM: the music played by the orchestra appears both at the beginning, end, and several times during the movement. This ritornello is alternated with the SOLOS, played by the featured violin soloist. * Second movement: Largo (slowly)This movement is a THEME & VARIATIONS FORM, which means that the melody (theme) heard at the beginning is followed by alternative versions of that same melody. Johann Sebastian Bach * Brandenburg Concerto No. 5, first movement http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=49IOKnhX0Sk&feature=youtu. be * Genre =concerto grosso, since the work requires three soloists – the flute, violin & harpsich ord – plus the orchestral accompaniment * First movement: Allegro. Form of 1st movement = ritornello form (the music played by the orchestra appears both at the beginning, end, and several times during the movement) * Polyphony and homophony at the same time * Imitation in the soloists Fugue 1 in C Major from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1 http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=RLZd_36puXAFugue begins at 2:09 * Is a collection of solo keyboard music. He first gave the title to a book of preludes and fugues in all 24 major and minor keys * Fugue (second half) of this work is part of the required listening for Exam #1. A fugue needs to be able to play more than one note at a time * Imitative polyphony (also called imitative counterpoint) in the work.There is no accompaniment Cantata No. 4, Christ lag in Todesbanden, nos. 4, 5 & 8 http://youtu. be/aVaV0spMDVg * Bach based this cantata on the words and music of a chorale composed by Martin Luther in 1524. Luther’s chorale me lody was based on an Easter hymn from the 12th century. Bach used the melody of Luther’s chorale in every movement of his cantata as a cantus firmus. Text is proper, for certain times of the year * Sacred Cantata * 0:00-1:55 4th movement: tenor aria, â€Å"Jesus Christus, Gottes Sohn . . . Note the texture of this movement: the tenor voice and the busy ‘obbligato’ violin part both move rather independently over the accompaniment provided by the basso continuo. Therefore, the movement is basically homophonic, because it has an accompaniment, despite the fact that there are multiple ‘upper parts’ (the tenor voice and violin). The texture of High Baroque music (1700-1750) can often be complicated in this manner—a combination of both polyphony (in the upper parts) and homophony (because of the accompaniment). * 1:59-4:24 5th movement: SATB quartet w/ continuo, â€Å"Es war ein wunderlicher Krieg.The texture of this movement is much more polyphon ic than the first, and the four vocal parts (soprano, also, tenor and bass) ‘imitate’ each other contrapuntally; in other words, the texture of this movement is ‘imitative polyphony. ’ Note also that the instrumental parts ‘move parallel to the voice parts’ (meaning that the instrumental parts play the exact same thing the three vocal soloists are singing); therefore the instruments take part in the polyphony * 7:04-8:23 8th movement: chorale with orchestra, â€Å"Wir essen und leben wohl . . † This final movement is set very simply, in a purely homophonic texture. All of the voice parts move in homorhythm—i. e. , they all move to the same rhythm nearly all of the time. However, they are not singing the same part, but are singing different pitches at the same time, thereby creating a series of chords. The continuo players (the instrumental accompaniment) follow along with the voices, adding there timbres to the overall sound. * Ba ch’s sacred cantatas often end with a homophonic presentation of the chorale melody: i. e. in a presentation of a harmonized chorale. The final movement is set in this simple style so that the congregation could participate in singing the final movement. All of the earlier movements are much more complicated, and would have been performed by professional singers employed by the church. * Note regarding this work on Exam #1: You need to be able to identify the texture and subgenre (aria, SATN quartet, and chorus) of each movementGeorge Frideric Handel * La giustizia† from Julius Caesar â€Å"There were Shepherds† and â€Å"Glory to God† from Messiah * http://youtu. be/SZN6VmKBxPQ * 0:00 – 0:10 secco (‘dry’) recitative; the continuo accompaniment here is very sparse and sometimes completely absent. * 0:10 – 0:29 accompanied recitative (entire orchestra accompanies) * 0:30 – 1:32 secco recitative again (continuo only again; c ello and harpsichord) * 1:13 – 1:32 accompanied recitative (entire orchestra); note that this portion goes straight into the following choral number. * 1:33 – 3:23 â€Å"Glory to God† chorus TERM LIST Medieval Period: 450-1450 Sacred Culture: anything intended to serve as part of worship. Earliest musical manuscripts contain sacred music exclusively because only members of the church was literate, peasants couldn’t write down secular music * Secular Culture: everything else (ie not serving as a part of worship, including art for entertainment only) * Liturgy (as in Roman Catholic liturgy): the system of prayers and worship of a particular religion, dictates how to worship, when to worship, what songs to sing and when.Considered a higher authority * Plainchant / chant / Gregorian Chant: Text: Latin (language) and SACRED (function) * Nonmetrical (ie rhythmically free, no discernible beat or meter) * Based on church modes of the Medieval Musical/Theoretical System * Usually performed with a MONOPHIC TEXTURE (texture: how many parts and what is their relationship), although other practices are possible * Usually performed A CAPPELLA (type of ensemble) * Metrical (has a discernable beat) /Nonmetrical (has no discernible beat or meter) * Divine Office Mass: relatively private worship service in convents and monasteries * Mass: large worship service for all Proper of Mass (or Mass Proper): of material into those parts of the text that always remain the same * Ordinary of Mass (Mass Ordinary) material that change according to the particular day in the liturgical year. * Kyrie (a simple prayer), Gloria (a long hymn, beginning), Credo (A recital of the Christian’s list of beliefs, beginning), Sanctus (another, shorter hymn), Agnus dei (Another simple prayer) * Church modes (Medieval Modes): the basis of the harmonic system. A collection of pitches that are organized within a piece of music to emphasize one particular pitch, called the final.These pitches also represent a collection of specific intervals * Responsorial Performance: a manner of performing chant in which a solo singer or leader performed verses of the text and the entire congregation answered each verse with the following verse or with a response or refrain. Common responses were amen and hallelujah, but others were more expansiveu * Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179): was well known in her day and her musical works poetry and other writings were widely copied and disseminated. Visionary, mystic, and prolific writer.CONVENT ABBESS: founded her own convent in Rupertsburg (eastern Germany). Her visions and prophecies made her famous throughout Europe, also known for her writings on science and music, very well educated and powerful woman in her time * Drone: a single two note chord running continuously. Found in Hildegard von Bingen’s Columba Aspexit * Also in the 12th C * Earliest manuscripts of secular music: musical settings of original poetry written by learned men and women (courtiers, monks, nuns, priests) for entertainment in royal courts.Composers were known as troubadours, trouveres, or minnesangers. These secular songs were notated monophonically, but were probably performed with improvised instrumental accompaniment. The poetry of these songs is most often in the vernacular language of the court. Songs dealt with courtly love/chivalry, as well as war and some deal with topics of sexual love * Earliest manuscripts of instrumental music: nearly are all courtly dances such as the Estampie or Salterello, notation suggests a regular rhythmic organization: metric or metered.These manuscripts were created by literate musicians, although dance music was often performed by jongleurs * Earliest manuscripts of polyphonic music: organum the earliest genre of medieval polyphony music (the simultaneous combination of two or more melodies) * Organum: the earliest genre of medieval polyphony music (the simultaneous combination o f two or more melodies) * Troubadour (south of France)/trouvere (in the north)/Minnesanger (Germany): noble poet composers of court songs who also performed the songs themselves.Among them were kings, prices, and even kings. Troubadour society (but not trouvere) allowed for women composers and performers. Literate classes of people (typically are courtiers). Not for public * Jongleur: popular musicians – Some noble songwriters only penned the words, leaving music to be composed by jongleurs. Popular musicians at the time, the music is relatively simple. Jongleurs played instruments while trouveres sang.Musicians of common status, typically illiterate, who traveled played a memorized repertory, improvising, getting paid when possible, occasionally organizing into guilds * Courtier: someone at a royal count, music for elite class * Chanson: French for song, a genre of French secular vocal music * Cantus Firmus: the way to create new sacred music, in the medieval era, a cantus f irmus was a pre-existing plainchant melody (therefore a sacred melody setting a sacred text) that has been recycled into a new composition ie a cantus firmus is chant melody that serves the basis for new musical creation * Notre Dame School: school of polyphonic music, not actual school setting, but they did influence one another. Group of composers working at or near the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris in late 12th and 13th centuries. * Ars antiqua/ars nova: contemporary terms for the â€Å"old technique† of the 13th century organum and the new polyphonic music of the 14th C. * Guillaume da Machaut (c. 1300 – 1377): was cleric and courtier, a widely celebrated poet and musician. Active at a variety of courts, including the Court of Charles, Duke of Normandy, who later became king of France.Widely known as the greatest musician of his time; renowned ever long after his death – the foremost composer of the ars nova style: the new style of complicated polyphonic mus ic in the late 14th C. This term was used to contrast the new music with the older Notre Dame polyphonic music of the 13th C. known as the ars antiqua * Notre Dame Mass (significance): composed the earliest extant complete setting of the mass ordinary. The five individual parts are based on some of the same borrowed and original musical material so they are musically liked to one another. Earlier complete settings were no doubt created as well, but this is the oldest to survive intact, due to its popularity and wide dissemination Renaissance Period: 1450-1600 Humanism: an intellectual movement and ethical system centered on humans and their values, needs, interests, abilities, dignity, and freedom, emphasizing secular culture in a rejection of the sacred * Moveable type printing press c. 1450: music printing soon followed, greatly expanded affordable access to vocal and instrumental music of all genres, both sacred and secularLutheran Reformation early 16th C: Martin Luther. The sep aration of protestant Christian sects from the Roman Catholic Church leads to a great diversity in post 1500 sacred music (not all sacred music is Latin) * Counter Reformation, late 16th C. : The Roman Catholic Church responded to the revolt led by Martin Luther by reforming church practices in the spirit of â€Å"true Christian piety. This was the RCC’s attempt to regain the loyalty of its people, as well as regain the loss of power and wealth that had resulted from the â€Å"split† of the church (MUSIC REFORM) * Council of Trent (musical significance): issued general recommendations in favor a pure vocal style that would respect the integrity of the sacred text. (The composer considered to best uphold the reformed ideal of church music was Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina)Fascination with and study of Greek and Roman antiquity: once the concern of medieval theologians and scholars only—becomes more common among the ever-larger literate classes; the architectu re, visual arts, poetry, and music of the renaissance demonstrates this influence. Word Painting: the music itself is composed in such a manner that the sound of the music reflects the meaning of the text (words such as fly and glitter were set to rapid notes, up and heaven to even higher ones) * Point of Imitation: a brief passage of imitative polyphony usually using a single musical motive (based on a single theme, or on two used together (used by Josquin Desprez) * Guillaume Dufay (c. 1400-1474): Born and received early musical training in northern France. However, he spent more than 25 years in Italy, as a musician and composer at the courts of various powerful families, or in major cathedrals, including the Papal Chapel in Rome.Dufay composed music in all the sacred and secular genres common to his day— masses, motets, Magnificats, hymns, and chants in fauxbordon style (see below), as well as secular songs of all types—using a rich musical language that combined t echniques of earlier masters (the Ars Nova) with the new techniques, textures and textual sensitivity of the emerging Renaissance aesthetics. Fauxbourdon passage in Dufay’s harmonized hymn, Ave maris stella * Harmonized hymn: it has a sacred text, and (2) the same music is repeated over and over for changing verses of that sacred text. Works intended for congregational singing often use this simply form. * Josquin des Prez (1440 – 1521) Born and received early musical training in northern France, moved to Italy where he served in several courts. He composed both sacred and secular music, setting both sacred texts and contemporary poetry. Achieve international fame; known to Martin Luther as the greatest living composer.Returned to northern France in his late life * Claudio Monteverdi (1567 – 1643): the most important musician in the late 16th and early 17th century Italy. Wrote nine books of madrigals, composed operas. Composed high Renaissance and early Baroque music, was a transitional composer who bridged between these two musical style periods writing in and epitomizing the styles and genres of both periods. * Madrigal: a polyphonic secular vocal genre of the Renaissance, a short composition set to a one stanza poem – typically a love poem, with rapid turnover of ideas and images). The most important secular vocal genre of the late renaissance and early baroque.Madrigals were settings of secular poetry on a variety of topics in the vernacular language (originally Italian). Were a genre of â€Å"high art† meaning it was intended for the entertainment of royalty, commoners would rarely be exposed to such music * Giovanni Palestrina (1525 – 1594): worked as an organist and choirmaster at various churches including St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, Pope Julius II appointed him to the Sistine Chapel Choir, wrote over 100 settings of he Roman Catholic Mass, Palestrina’s music was known to later generations, mos t importantly Bach who considered it the epitome of sacred music in the â€Å"old style,† was considered the best composer to uphold the reformed ideal of church music Baroque Period: 1600-1750 Monody: literally ‘one song’ characterized by a solo vocal melody with instrumental accompaniment * basso continuo / continuo / figured bass : one, two or more instruments that provide an accompaniment for one or more vocal or instrumental soloists, reading from a musical part that is called the figured bass, because it is notated as a single line of music (the base line) over which numbers (the figures) indicate the other notes to be played on.At least one of the basso continuo instruments plays the bass line as written by the composer, while the other (or others) improvises chords on that bass line * In the Baroque and early Classical periods, the keyboard instrument in the basso continuo was almost always the harpsichord * ‘continuo group’: the instrumentat ion of the basso continuo (also called the continuo r the continuo group) was never specified in the music. Musicians and composers of the period were very practical with regard to performance practices. Therefore, their music was designed to accommodate a wide variety of performance situations * to ‘realize a figured bass’ * improvisation * Ornamentation: the practice (both vocal and instrumental) of spontaneously adding (improvising) short decorative flourishes to the written music during performances). These additional notes are generally called ornaments or embellishments * Score (as in musical score): a piece of music that shows all of the parts in a given piece, all together on each page: also called a full score.Some small ensemble music commonly appears in such a format, but it is not practical for larger ensembles. Full scores of large ensemble works are generally used only by conductors and for study * Part (as in printed musical part): a piece of music that s hows only one portion of the overall performing ensemble, usually just the music of a single instrument or vocalist * Opera (time & place of its invention): Opera was originally created in the wealthy Italian courts of Florence in approximately 1600 by a group of intellectuals; poets and musicians who were attempting to recreate the ancient Greek dramas, which they determined had been sung in a very declamatory (i. e. , speech-like) style. * Two types/subgenres of song in opera:Recitative: a song that imitates and rhythms and pitch patterns of natural speech; usually carries the action and dialogue of an opera; used to forward the action of drama. Not very lyrical and melodious; sounds more like speech or recitation. Good for expressing text, in which the meaning is important, usually does not have long melismas or repetitions of texts. Rhythmically free or nonmetrical. Usually accompanied by only one or two instruments, the basso continuo, which closely follows the singer * Aria: a song for solo voice, often with a larger ensemble playing the accompaniment. Strongly metrical (ie has a strong and recognizable beat).A melodious or lyrical song which expresses an outpouring of emotion, thereby developing the character of the person singing the aria; very lyrical often epeating fragments of the text and containing melismas that ‘show off’ the technical and expressive abilities of the star singers * Both recitatives and arias were also composed as ‘stand alone’ works: as works that were performed alone without being part of a larger work * Libretto / librettist: the libretto is story or text of an opera, written by the librettist almost never the composer himself, but rather someone with literary and poetic skills. Operas were intended as entertainment and use secular text in a vernacular language. The subject matter of librettos vary widely, the earliest operas drew their subject matter from the myths, dramas, and histories of ancient Gr eece and Rome. * Castrato: Male singer castrated before puberty in order to retain the pre-adolescent high vocal range. The most important category of vocal soloists in opera (and other vocal genres) during the baroque, although most of them were employed by Italian churches.Many leading operatic roles for men—whether hero or romantic lead—were written for castrati. Castrati also commonly performed women’s roles. The â€Å"rock stars† of their day, the most successful castrati enjoyed great popularity and financial reward. We know many of their names, careers, and personal exploits today. Today, the operatic roles and other vocal parts originally composed for castrati are sung by (1) women or (2) countertenors or falsettists (male sopranos). * Overture (as in opera): the instrumental piece (for the orchestra alone) that introduces an opera. It is the first thing you hear at the beginning of the opera, often before the main opera characters come on stage.O vertures often contain musical themes from the vocal pieces to follow, sort of ‘foreshadowing’ the action of the opera * Traits of the baroque orchestra: During the Baroque Era that our modern conception of the orchestra, as a group centered around a group of bowed strings, was first developed. However, baroque orchestras were much smaller than the orchestras used in later art music, usually included only 10 to 25 people, and often consisted of nothing but bowed strings and perhaps a harpsichord or organ. Wind instruments (brass and woodwinds) could be used and often were, including a limited array of percussion, but the bowed strings were the CORE of the orchestra from its earliest inception. Henry Purcell (1659-1695): Often referred to as the first great English composer of international acclaim. Worked as a singer, organist and composer in the courts of Charles II (reigned 1660-85), James II (r. 1685-88), and William and Mary (r. 1689- 1702). Purcell’s instrum ental works rank among the finest musical achievements of the middle Baroque. * Lament / lament aria: A poem (or, when set to music, a song) expressing grief, regret or mourning. As a musical subcategory of recitative and aria, it was very popular in the 17th century and after. * Basso ostinato / ground bass: Baroque lament arias often feature a basso ostinato (also known as a ground bass), which is a bass theme that repeats over and over.The basso ostinatos or ground basses of lament arias typically consists of a descending, chromatic figure (often descending from tonic to dominant in the key of the piece) in a slow triple meter. * Recorder: * Harpsichord * Lute (archlute) * Organ viol (viola da gamba) * MULTI-MOVEMENT WORK: a musical work under one title that is actually several separate musical pieces that are always played together in the same order. Each of the individual pieces that comprise a multi-movement genre is called a MOVEMENT. It is typical that the various movements of a multi-movement instrumental work all employ the same ensemble, although there are some exceptions.On the other hand, large-scale vocal/instrumental genres (such as operas, cantatas and oratorios) often contain movements that contrast with regard to the ensemble used. The individual movements with any multi-movement genre are designed both to complement and contrast with one another with regard to key, tempo, and musical material. * Sonata * Trio sonata: multi-movement genre for TWO instrumental soloists and basso continuo. Be careful about this one, because the ensemble can vary widely. Since the basso continuo part might be played by one, two or three people, the total ensemble of a trio sonata could include from 3 players (2 soloists + 1 continuo player) to 5 players (2 soloists + 3 continuo players) or even more.Solo concerto: multi-movement (usually three but not standardized in the baroque era) genre for a single instrumental soloist (of any type) and orchestra (including basso continuo) * Concerto grosso: multi-movement (usually three but could be more) genre for two or more instrumental soloists and orchestra (including the basso continuo). Many such works were written for two violinists and basso continuo (the solo group) accompanied by a larger group (the orchestra, which usually also consisted of strings only). Part of the interest in such works is the exciting contrast of the smaller solo group with the larger orchestra. During the Baroque Era, concerto grosso (concerto grossi is the Italian plural) were NEVER titled Concerto Grosso.They were usually titled simply ‘concerto,’ and are therefore difficult to differentiate from a solo concerto by title alone. * Suite / dance suite / baroque dance suite: a multi-movement genre for orchestra without any particular featured soloists. Usually each movement is named after and is an example of a particular dance type, although some movements might have other inspirations and be unrelated to dance. SUITE, by definition, means a multi-movement collection of dances. Dance suites could be used for dancing or simply as concert works for listening enjoyment. * Multi-movement instrumental work for orchestra alone (in baroque also w/ continuo group) * The number of movements was not very standardized during the Baroque period.Some examples of the genre have as many as nine (for instance, Handel’s Suite No. 2 in D major, popularly known as part of the Water Music). * The individual movements are often evocative of DANCE TYPES and have dance-related names (Minuet, Bourree, Gigue, Hornpipe, etc. ), although there are also other types of names as well (especially ‘Air,’ a title that implies a lyrical, slow piece with song-like qualities). * The prominence of this genre during the baroque period highlights the importance of dance during the period. * Fugue * An entire piece or distinct subsection of music that employs imitative polyphony in a strictly prescribe d manner.A fugue can be a genre (if an entire piece or movement contains nothing but that fugue), but it is also possible for a subsection of a piece to be described as a ‘fugue’. * Fugues may be written for any instrument capable of polyphonic solo playing, or for any combination of voices or instruments, or instruments and voices together. * The first musical theme of a fugue is called the SUBJECT. After its first appearance in a single voice or part, you will then hear that same melody again and again in the other parts. Not really a genre because it doesn’t tell you the ensemble. * J. S. Bach’s music is generally regarded as one of the greatest artistic achievements of the Baroque Period.At the end of his life, however, his musical style was rather old fashioned, for the newer style of the early classic period was already being composed by a number of younger composers, including Bach’s own sons. These younger composers of the new classical styl e were not sympathetic to complex polyphony, preferring a more simple, homophonic texture. Ritornello form: the music played by the orchestra appears both at the beginning, end, and several times during the movement. * Theme & variations form: the melody (theme) heard at the beginning is followed by alternative versions of that same melody. * Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) * Must know J. S. Bach’s death date (1750) marks the end of the Baroque Period.German, Lutheran composer and one of the most influential figures in western music history. Born into a family of musicians. Eventually known as a virtuoso organist (expert of construction and maintance). * At age 23, J. S. Bach was appointed his first important position: court organist and chamber musician to the Duke of Weimar. He later worked for five years at the court of the Prince of Anhalt-Cothen, where he wrote some of his most famous instrumental works, including The Brandenburg Concertos. * J. S. Bach also composed h is very famous suites (a multi-movement collection of dances) for unaccompanied violoncello (i. e. , cello) during his time working for the Prince of Anhalt-Cothen. * At age 38 J. S.Bach was appointed his most prestigious position when he became CANTOR (i. e. , the music director) at St. Thomas Church in Leipzig * Cantor: music director, head of choir * Sacred Cantata (as composed by J. S. Bach between 1700 and 1750) * A fairly large-scale, multi-movement vocal/instrumental genre, typically consisting of six to eight movements, used in the worship services of German Lutheran Churches. * Sacred cantatas are NOT a dramatic presentation like opera; a cantata (whether sacred or secular) features no plot, acting, costumes, stage movement, etc. ), although it is divided into choruses, arias, recitatives, duets, and instrumental pieces etc. just like an opera or oratorio.The ensemble of a sacred cantata consists of a smallish choir (12 or so), vocal soloists, an orchestra (10-20 or so) and an organ, although larger groups of singers and instrumentalists were used on special occasions (like major feast days in the liturgical calendar). * Texts are in the vernacular language (German) * Lutheran chorale * Hymn-like songs used for congregational singing in the Lutheran Church, composed in a rather simple, four-part (SATB) texture. It is a sacred genre that was (and is) sung during the worship service by the congregation along with the professional choir (the latter of whom would have performed the sacred cantata during the worship service). Many chorales date back to Martin Luther (1483-1546) himself, although new ones were continuously composed for centuries. *Chorales are STROPHIC: i. e. , each verse of text is sung to the same repeated music. * George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) * German-born composer who created numerous works in every genre of his day, including orchestral dance suites, organ concertos, and concerti grossi, but he is most remembered for his 39 Itali an-style operas and his oratorios for English audiences. * Unlike most professional musicians of his day, Handel was not from a musical family, but he studied with a local organist and composer from a young age. At 18 he worked as a violinist and harpsichordist in the orchestra of an opera house in Hamburg; at 20 he produced his first successful opera. * At 21 he went to Italy, where he further studied the Italian opera style; he also composed and successfully produced operas in Italy. * In 1710 Handel took a well-paid position as music director for Elector Georg Ludwig of Hanover, who became Handel’s patron. A friend of the arts, this patron allowed Handel to travel extensively and promote his music on the international stage. * Handel made several trips to London to produce his operas, and he eventually moved there in 1712 and remained in England for the rest of his life. * Handel became London’s most important composer and a favorite of Queen Anne.* Oratorio: Much l ike n opera, a large-scale music drama for vocal soloists, chorus and orchestra; oratorios are multi-movement works that contain arias, recitatives, duets, trios, choral numbers, and interludes for orchestra alone. * Usually based on a narrative libretto with plots and characters (one of whom is usually a narrator); however, unlike an opera there is no acting, scenery, or costumes. * Handel’s oratorios are usually based on stories from the Old Testament: for example Handel’s oratorios Israel in Egypt and Joshua. * Secular genre composed and performed for entertainment purposes; usually performed in an opera theater or other large, secular, public venue. * Da capo aria form: a specific type of ternary form (A—B—A). Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741): The â€Å"Red Priest† Famous and influential as a virtuoso violinist and composer. Born in Venice, Italy, the son of a violinist employed at St. Mark’s Cathedral. Known as the â€Å"Red Priest† b ecause he was indeed a priest and had rather wild red hair. Worked as a violin teacher, composer, and conductor at the Music School of the Pieta, orphanage for girls. The orchestra and chorus at this school was one of the finest in Italy, and much of Vivaldi’s music was composed for them to perform. Although he composed operas and church music, he is best known for his 450 or so concertos (both solo concertos and concertos grosso; see following notes).General Terminology & Concepts Genre: a specific category of musical composition as defined by its musical characteristics or traits; for instance a Gregorian chant, a string quartet, an art song * Ensemble/medium: the instruments, voices, or anything else that makes sound and takes part in music making. A. k. a. instrumentation (but don’t forget about the voices). Some particular types of ensembles became standardized within a given genre culture and become associated with more or less specific social settings, functions , or musical styles * Range of Human Voices (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Base) * SATB choir: defining the voices required by a chorus or choir to perform a particular musical work. Pieces written for SATB, the commonest combination and that used by most Hymn tunes, can be sung by choruses of mixed genders, by choirs of men and boys, or by four soloists. A cappella: (Italian for â€Å"in the manner of the church† or â€Å"in the manner of the chapel†) music is specifically solo or group singing without instrumental sound *Monophony/monophonic texture: a musical texture involving a single melodic line, as in Gregorian chant, as opposed to polyphony * Polyphony/polyphonic texture: musical texture in which two or more melodic lines are played or sung simultaneously * Imitative polyphony: (continuous imitation) brief usually fragments of melody (motives) are passed from voice to voice (or instrument to instrument) within the performing group, so that these motives are heard again and again within close proximity of each other making the music easier to comprehend and follow * Non-imitative polyphony: four voices with four independent melodies that never repeat the music of another voice part. Non-imitative polyphony is the ideal and most common texture in Medieval polyphonic music * Homophony/homophonic texture: music that is harmonic, chordal texture, a musical texture that involves only one melody of real interest combined with chords or other subsidiary sounds * Melody + accompaniment * Homorhythm/homorhythmic texture: a musical texture in which all of the parts move together rhythmically.Renaissance music often alternates between polyphonic passages (in which all of the parts are independent) and homorhythmic passages (in which all of the parts move together) * Two types of text setting * Syllabic: each syllable of text is set to only one pitch (syllable by syllable) * Melismatic: text setting that contains melismas; a melisma is a single syllable of te xt that is set to large groups of pitches * Pitch: a sound producing vibration that oscillates at a definite and prescribed rate of speed. Are named using the first seven letters of the alphabet (A B C D E F G) * Equal Temperament * The man made division of the octave into 12 equal intervals (measured in ? steps) * The man made division of the octave in 12 half steps (12 half steps per octave) *Equal temperament tuning Accidentals: a note whose pitch is not a member of a scale or mode indicated by the most recently applied key signature. In musical notation, the symbols used to mark such notes, sharps (? ), flats (? ), and naturals (? ), may also be called accidentals. An accidental sign raises or lowers the following note from its normal pitch, * Sharp, raises half step ? * Flat, lowers half step ? * Natural, cancels sharp and flat ? * Metrical (has a discernable beat) /Nonmetrical (has no discernible beat or meter) * Tempo: refers to the relative speed of the beat in music * Prest o: very fast * Allegro: fast * Moderato: at a moderate rate * Adagio/adante: slow * Dynamics: refers to the relative loudness or softness of the music. * Forte = f = play loudly Mezzo forte = mf = somewhat loudly (less loud than f) * Mezzo piano = mp = somewhat softly (less loud than mf) * Piano = p = play softly * Crescendo = < = to become gradually louder * Descrescendo = > = to become gradually softer Recap of Genres Studied * Chanson: French Secular Song * chorale (Lutheran chorale): * concerto grosso * fugue * hymn / harmonized hymn * madrigal * Mass * motet * opera * oratorio * organum * plainchant / chant / Gregorian Chant * sacred cantata * solo concerto * sonata (solo sonata) * suite / dance suite / baroque dance suite * trio sonata Sinfonia: in the 18th Century sinfonia and overture were used interchangeably. Later on the symphony was a genre was created