Impact of interest rate changes on bank profitability

Impact of interest rate changes on bank profitability Over the years, banking system in Pakistan shown enormous growth and potential. The performance and stability indicators showed significant improvement in the profitability of banking system. But now a days banking sector going under pressure. Such as liquidity crunch and solvency problem have significant impact on the performance of banking sector and economy. The financial institution could have managed the situation without any trouble if they have sufficient amount of liquidity available to fulfill their obligation. Since they are operating in very tight market conditions. So, they are forces to pay attractive rates to depositors to attract liquidity. Although the State Bank of Pakistan reduced the Cash Reserve Requirement (CRR) and Statutory Liquidity Requirement (SLR) on demand and Time Liabilities to ease the liquidity in the market. The governments instead of developing their own recourses empower banks to generate money and then borrow from banks. The huge amount of borrowin g from banks by the government its disturbing the economy. The government not only curtails its borrowing from banks but also put some sort of check on power of money. All these factors have combined to set a stage where lending rates are high and having great amount of burden on banks financials. The amount of non performing loans increased at rapid speed despite of heavy amount of provision created by the bank in recent years. The increasing asset quality concerns would force the banks to book heavy provisions for non performing loans (NPLs). The stability of the banking system is conditional upon the stability of overall economy. A stable macroeconomic environment contributes to effective and efficient growth of saving and investment decision. Appropriate macroeconomic measures should support the functioning of the banking system more specifically in the areas of financial stabilization, transparent fiscal policy and monetary policy. The major contributor role of effective and efficient growth in the economy is played by the State Bank of Pakistan and provides guideline to the financial institution to play their role in the development by mobilizing the resources of the economy and facilitating the investors. The success of a bank also depends on the ability to forecast and avoid risk, to cover the losses brought about by the arisen risk. Profit is the important requirement of a competitive banking institution and the cheapest source of funds. It is essential to see it not simply as a result, but also a necessity for successful banking in a growing competition on financial market. These important facts together are the reason for this to focus on the current topical issue of banks profitability. We will highlight problems which are influencing on banks effectiveness and efficiency to manage their portfolio such as assets and liabilities in aiming at to achieve profitability and identify the areas where it might have possible room for raising the bank profitability. Banks assets are grouped into two categories earning assets and non earning assets. Earning assets means those on which banks earns interest income and non earning assets means those which used for the purpose reserve requirem ent, fixed assets to run day to day operational activities. In this study we have focus on earning assets. This included Placement and lending to financial institution, investment in securities and loan advances. These assets are the major source of income for bank. Therefore, it is apparent that average income generation ability of these assets has a decisive influence on the banks profitability. As financial intermediary, banks play a vital role in the operation of most economic development. The efficiency of financial intermediation can also affect the economic growth. Banks are different from other firms in that they provide financial services, the reward to which is an interest rate, and the most of the funding are financed by the deposits or borrowing, the expense of which is also an interest rate. Interest margin, the difference between what a bank has earns on its earning assets and what is paid to depositor. It has been on upward trend during the last decade. An increase in the spread would affect the depositor or the borrower or both stand loose at same time. The lack of alternate avenues of financial intermediation aggravates the adverse impact of spread. For example, if the State Bank of Pakistan based on the monetary policy change the interest rate. Then the change in the interest rate influences the cost of capital that in turn affects the level of consumption an d investment decision. If the increase in the spread is due to decrease the rate to depositors then this discourage the saving, and alternatively if due to increase the rate it would have adverse impact on investment. Therefore, these changes in the interest rate have important implication on the economy. Banks are more sensitive to interest rate changes than most of the other institutions. The effect of interest rate changes on banks profitability has been an important issue for banking system. It has been argued that bank exposure to interest rate risk perhaps the most important issue in participating the saving and investment crises. 1.2: Problem Statement The impacts of interest rate changes have a significant impact on the bank profitability. When interest rate changes it would result in increase or decrease in the interest income of the bank and also have adverse affect on depositors saving and borrower investment decision. 1.3: Objective This research aims to study the impact of interest rate changes on banks profitability based on the following variables directly affecting the banks profitability Interest rate Balances with other banks Deposits accounts Lending to Financial Institution Investments Loan Advances 1.4: Research Scope and Limitation The scope of this research is to find out the impact of interest rate changes on banks profitability. There are few limitation involved in the study. The sample selection consists of five major banks. Which covers the 57% market share of the Pakistan banking industry. The basis for calculation of income is KIBOR rate. The banking system starts using as benchmark as KIBOR rate from 2002 onward. Therefore, our study period is 2003 2008. 1.6 Chapter Summary The banking sector shown enormous potential in previous years. Banking sector achieved high profitability and economy was stable. But from 2008 onward banking sector going through a financial crises such as liquidity and solvency problem. To control the uncertain condition of the country. The central bank reduces the Cash Reserve Requirement and Statutory Liquidity Requirement. So, banks have more liquidity to fulfill their obligations. On the other hand Central Bank increases the discount rate to control the money supply in the market. Which result in higher interest rates. Due to the increase in interest rate and financial crises borrowers default ratio increase and financial institution suffer large amount of losses during the period. This increasing amount of asset quality concerns would force the bank to book heavy provision for non performing loans (NPLs). The stability of the banking system is dependant on the economy. A stable macroeconomic condition will contribute to effect ive and efficient growth of saving and investment. Banks play as role of financial intermediary in the development of economy. If the central bank made any change in the monetary policy it will affect the performance of financial institution. Then the changes in the interest rate will affect the saving and investment. If the spread increases due to decrease in the rate to depositor then it will discourage the depositor and alternatively if due to increase in the rate to borrower then it will affect the investment decision. Therefore, banks are more sensitive to interest rate changes then the other institution. The effect of interest rate has been todays most important issue for banking sector. Chapter 2: Literature Review The study of Flannery, (1981) showed that large banking organizations (1978 assets greater than $2 billion) are well hedged against interest rate fluctuations. The large banks made necessary adjustment to avoid interest rate fluctuation by revising the repayment schedule rate as per the agreement with customer to minimize their interest rate risk. The some of the borrower pay quarterly, half yearly and annual payments. So, as per the agreement schedule bank revise the rates which minimize the risk of bank. When market rate change, the large banking organization made necessary adjustments to avoid interest rate volatility in revenue and cost. The mostly organization have mis matched balance sheet such as they borrow from customer and financial institution at shorter period or maturity and give lending to customer and financial institution at longer period. It would create mis match between balance sheet. Therefore, banks are exposing to interest rate risk and liquidity risk. To avoid the liquidity risk the banks develop relationship with financial institution to overcome their liquidity problem on immediate basis and for interest rate they minimize the risk by revising the interest rate of the contract as per the agreement. The finding of this article suggests that most bank posses a sufficient range of assets and liabilities choices to avoid the risk. This study employs annual data from the federal Reports of Income and Condition on individual insured banks in continuous existence from 1960 through 1978. Twelve banks were chosen at random from the national population in each of five asset size categories (based on year-end 1978 assets): less than $25 million, $25- 25-49.9 million, $50-99.9 million, $100-299.9 million, and greater than $300 million. Holding company subsidiary banks were excluded from the first four size million, $100-299.9 million, and greater than $300 million. Holding company subsidiary banks were excluded from the first four size groups; 3 banks above $300 million were included regardless of their subsidiary status, since large independent banks may not be representative of the population Flannery, (1983). In this study data collected from the federal report of income and condition f rom 1960 to 1978. Population of Twelve banks randomly chosen for analysis and break into 5 different assets size categories on the basis of 1978 assets: less than $25 million, greater than $25 and less than $49.9 million, greater than $50 and less than $99.9 million, greater than $100 and less than $299.9 million and greater than $300 millions. In this study holding companys subsidiary excluded from first four groups and greater than $300 million includes the subsidiary banks of holding company and regression techniques had been used in the analysis. The result of the study showed that commercial banks groups are substantial exposed to interest rate risk and individual bank choose alternatives to avoid such risk. Bank possess sufficient amount of funds available in the form of assets and liabilities to minimize those risk and try to get productive results. The study of Barajas et.al (1999) showed that a key variable in the financial system is the spread between lending and deposit interest rates. When it is too large, it is generally regarded as a considerable impediment to the expansion and development of financial intermediation, as it discourages potential savers with low returns on deposits and limits financing for potential borrowers, thus reducing feasible investment opportunities and therefore the growth potential of the economy. The key point of financial institution is the spread between Loan and deposits rate differences. When the lending rate is high and deposits rate is low then which results in higher the profitability for the financial institution but on the other hand it will discourage the depositor. Because the depositors getting low return on their savings and also discouraging for the borrowers because the financial institution charging high interest rate. If the financial institution doing the same then it would red ucing the saving confidence on depositor and borrower will try to avoid to borrow from financial institution. Which resulting in reducing the investments opportunities because the saving money not contributing to the economy. Financial system of developing countries showing larger spread difference as compare to the developed countries. Based on the balance sheet and profit loss information the author derived two data base. One data base developed on basis of quarterly data from 1974-1988 and other on the basis of monthly data from 1991-1996. In the period 1974-1980 the spread between loan and deposits increasing steadily and then start decreasing during the period 1981-1988 reached to 19 percent and again decreased during the period of 1991-1996. The evidence provided by the author clearly suggest that the during 1974-1980 spread increased and then during the 1981-1990 significantly decreased. This showed that the loan quality during the period remained stable and reserve ratio re quirement decreased and consistent spreads and cost lower the productivity of the state bank. A study of Maisal, Robert (1978) showed that financial markets is the degree and rapidity with which financial institution react to new information and shift funds among asset and liability classes so as to equalize marginal cost and returns. Many analysts assume that markets are efficient, that transaction and information costs are negligible or unimportant, and that borrowing and lending hedging and arbitrage are simple and available at or close to risk free rates. As a result, they believe that they can successfully predict the results of all types of markets actions and reactions without concern for institutional forces. The financial markets are so efficient that they get rapidly information and on the basis of information they are making quick decision regarding the fund management such as assets, liability, cost and income. When all the information readily available then it reduces the cost and increase efficiency of transaction such as hedging and arbitrage without taking any risk on the basis of available information analyst predict their results of any market without considering the forces. The study conducted by author on the basis of cost and revenue of cross section banks during the period 1962-1975 estimation made on the basis of net rate of income and cost of book value of assets. The net rate is the difference between the gross revenue from assets minus cost of asset and rates are net of servicing, processing and overhead cost. The result showed that major shift occurred during the period of 1970-1975. Net returns of assets considerably differ when computed on the basis of average. The study of Demirgà ¼Ãƒ §-Kunt, Harry (1999) showed the differences in interest margins and bank profitability reflect a variety of determinants: bank characteristics, macroeconomic conditions, explicit and implicit bank taxation, deposit insurance regulation, overall financial structure, and underlying legal and institutional indicators. A larger ratio of bank assets to gross domestic product and a lower market concentration ratio lead to lower margins and profits, controlling for differences in bank activity, leverage, and the macroeconomic environment. Foreign banks have higher margins and profits than domestic banks in developing countries, while the opposite holds in industrial countries. Also, there is evidence that the corporate tax burden is fully passed onto bank customers, while higher reserve requirements are not, especially in developing countries. The study showed that variation between spreads and profitability comprised of various determinants. Such as economic condi tions, regulations and financial structure. As the banks have a high ratio of asset with respect to gross domestic product and have small profit margin and banks profits. Because of debts and economic conditions. Foreign banks usually have greater margin of profits as compare to the local or domestic bank in the developing countries and different outcome for industrial countries. This study also evidence that corporate tax had a direct burden on the bank customer because bank transfer the tax burden to their customer while reserve requirement of central bank doesnt not have a significant effect on banks. The data collected at the level of banks for 80 institutes and period comprised of 1988-1995 on the size and decomposition of banks spreads and profits. Regression technique had been used to find out the determinate of interest rate spreads and banks profitability. Taxation and regulation have big impact on bank customer and overall bank position. The banking system varies from coun try to country around the world in size and composition and structure. All banks have different influence of macroeconomic conditions, regulation and market conditions. Several countries data had been used for analysis to find out the bank characteristics and conditions which affect the banks performance such as interest margins and profitability. Some variable have positive relationship with each other and some of them have a negative relationship with each other i.e. reserve ratio to profitability. The study of Samuelson Paul A, (1945) showed that the banking system as a whole is not really hurt by an increase in the whole complex of interest rates. It is left tremendously better off by such a change. If a bank were a university, nobody would doubt that it would be made better off by an increase in the interest rate. At worst, it could continue to hold all existing gilt-edge securities to maturity and be no worse off. As these matured, the proceeds could be invested at higher rates with a resulting increase in income. It would be better off in the sense that ceteris paribus it could hire more teachers per year, spend more money on buildings and stadia, and engage in more research. The only exception would be in the limiting and unrealistic case where all its money was invested in perpetuities. But even here it would be no worse off. In every other case it would be better off. The increase in the interest rates usually not affects the performance of bank, its actual effect on th e borrower. When the interest rate increases then borrower will bear the effect of increase interest rate. But it would not affect the bank performance .The reason is that the bank pay low return to depositors and charge more to borrower as interest rate increases. So, both depositor and borrower will bear the cost. In this article author taken the example of university. If this loan given to the university it certainly impact on the university performance because of increase in the interest rates. As the interest rates increases it would become more costly for the university and difficult to pay to the bank on time. The increase in the interest rates would not hurt university as its decreases capital value. This change would have a better impact on university. The study of Coleman George W, (1945) showed that the banking system would recover these losses over a period of time, the length depending upon the maturity distribution. During that period, it would be frozen in to a given maturity pattern. The earnings of the banking system upon the existing portfolio would increase. He states that immediately after interest rates have risen and capital values have scaled down, all parts of the portfolio, old as well as new, began to earn the higher rates. The rise in the interest rates bank can come up with some loss on the portfolio such as investing in the securities of longer period. The bank can recover this cost over the period of time and get desired returns and also increase in the capital of the bank. When the investment is carried at cost then it would amortize cost. It means banks amortize the investments over the period of agreement until it becomes zero. When the interest rate rise it would have immediate effect and bank re-prices the portfolio on the current interest rate and gets benefit of the opportunity. The objective of the study to find that increase in interest rate would not a sufficient impact on banks. Its directly influence on the saver or borrower. Which ultimately result in decrease in saving and investment. The management of bank continuously monitoring and updating their portfolio policies to minimize such risk. The study of Khawaja, Musleh, (2007) showed that Interest spread of the Pakistans banking industry has been on the rise for the last two years. The increase in interest spread discourages savings and investments on the one hand, and raises concerns on the effectiveness of bank lending channel of monetary policy on the other. The interest rate spreads in banking sector on the upward move. When the interest rate increases its discourages the depositor and borrower. Such as saving and investments. Banks giving low returns to depositors which results in discouragement and getting high return from borrower by charging high interest rates inclusive of spreads. Spreads are much high in Pakistan. When spreads taken into account ultimately the interest increase and banks gets high returns on lending and investments. The depositor not has any other option to save his money and also the strict requirement of SBP capital requirement. The industry has rapidly merger and acquisition. This results in decrease in the option for saving. In this study author used data of 29 banks. Variant model had been used to check variables relationship. The results showed that inelasticity in deposits supply have positive impact on interest rate spreads. To lower the spread margin central bank play a vital role to reduce the spread and other alternative would be the financial intermediary which lower the spreads. The study of Chirwa, Montfort, (2004) highlighted the importance of financial liberalization in facilitating economic development and growth. While there is no complete agreement on the removal of financial repression, usually characterized by control of interest rates, imposition of credit ceilings, and credit rationing, leads to significant amelioration of growth prospects, the dominant view is that financial liberalization and growth usually go together. Financial liberalization had a great influence on improving the economy and increasing growth. There is no certain agreement made on the financial repression. The management made certain tool and polices to control the interest rate impact on credits. Such as by applying tool of checking limits and there purpose of credit extension. The good control over the interest rate would have a significant on the performance of economy and growth of the country. Financial liberalization and growth of the economy work to gather and run head to head and boost the development of economy. The determinants of interest spread and bank profitability have been often used in the model. In portfolio choice bank trying to maximize their good portfolio. This maximizes the profitability of the banks. Bank usually made feasible choice of assets and liabilities with respective tenor interest rate. This study used monthly panel data from banking system between 1989-1999.the findings of that study showed that the after liberalization the interest rate significantly increased. The main cause of that increase was the increase in nonfinancial cost, provision for doubtful debts, taxation and variation in the inflation rates. The study of Marisel Peter, (2002) showed that in the world of endogenous money, the central banks role in monetary policy is reduced to the setting of a very short term official rate of interest, which indicates the price at which it will make liquidity available to the banking system. However; it is changes in market rates that affect behavior; and so the ability of the central bank to influence anything at all depends, first, on the interaction between official and market rates. In this paper, we use a vector autogressive error correction model to explore the response to changes in the central bank rate of three short-term market rates that have been featured previously in this journal in debates about the demand for endogenous money. The main responsibility of the state bank is to control or reduce the rates which affect the price and liquidity of the banking system and affect the availability of liquidity of the banking organizations. The fluctuation in the market interest rates will affect the function of the banking system and as well as the behavior of the consumer and economy. In this study autoregressive correction model had been used by the author to find out the responses of interest rates changes and its effect. When spread between Corporate Government bond increases then the market assume that the risk on the bond increases. When they see then they try to predict the coming slowdown and recession in the economy. After testing they have found that it would have a positive effect on the economy. They have used the Autoregressive model to test the fluctuation in prices and interest rates. The result of the paper showed that the short term interest rates have a significant impact on the banking system as compare to the long term interest rates. Short term interest rates were the major instrument of the monetary policy of the central bank. In monetary policy central bank advice the interest rates which would affect the banking system as well as the ov erall economic activities of the country. 2.1: Chapter Summary The impacts of interest rate changes have a significant impact on the bank profitability. When interest rate changes it would result in increase or decrease in the interest income. The Pakistan banking industry use Karachi Interbank Offered Rate (KIBOR) for earning assets to find out the interest income. The major portfolio reprice on 6 M KIBOR. Bank is exposing to interest rate risk. But usually bank hedge against interest rate risk to minimize its impact on bank performance. The major impact of interest rate changes would affect the depositors and borrowers. Because when interest rate changes it would discourage the saving and investment decision.

Jonathan Edwards and the Puritan Mind Essay example -- essays papers

Jonathan Edwards and the Puritan Mind If one were to study the idea of Puritan thought through only the reading of these three works of Jonathan Edwards, one could probably gather a good idea of the inner workings of the Puritan mind. These three works do well to disclose to the reader the inner and outer workings of Jonathan Edwards. The Personal Narrative displays to the reader Jonathan Edwards' view of himself as he progressed through life, and the ideals and the things that were most valuable to him, and the things that were a hindrance to himself. The sermon A Divine and Supernatural Light exhibits the nature of Jonathan Edwards' intellectual mind, and the view of expository preaching that he and the Puritan mind may have held and endorsed. Finally, Sinners in the Hand of an Angry God shows Jonathan Edwards' passion for people to come to the same understanding of God as he (and most other Puritans) held. Through these three literary pieces we will see how the Puritan mind struggles with the goals of inner and oute r piety, and how they concern themselves with the eternal position of their soul. Jonathan Edwards, as a model of Puritan life, lived a life that concerned itself greatly with appearing and feeling godly. Most of the Personal Narrative shows Edwards in a struggle between delighting in God, and returning "like a dog to his vomit," (176) and going the way of sin. It seems, though, as Edwards grew in his faith, his concern for piety grew even further. At several points in his life he decided to "part with all things in the world for an interest in Christ" (177). Edwards struggled to delight himself in the things of God and surround himself with those things, often shutting other things out in order that he ma... ... salvation as some liberal theologians would suggest to us. In conclusion, Edwards paints a very unmistakable picture of how a Puritan mind works through these three essays/sermons in this book. Puritan thought is seen as very pious, reflective, spiritual, works-based, concerned about their salvation, and exclusive in nature. Edwards offers a three-dimensional view of how his mind works through the narrative of his personal life (Personal Narrative), the work of his intellectual mind (A Divine and Supernatural Light), and the passion of his soul (Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God). Being a student of theology, I found it an interesting insight into how his mind worked, in seeing Edwards' view of God. I am a firm believer in understanding people and their motivation by looking at their understanding of God. Edwards was an excellent example of the Puritan mind.

Native Americans Essays -- essays research papers

Native Americans culture is unique for many ways. Living on the reservations they were in touch with nature as well as their ancestors. Native Americans are disputed in the country, diverse among tribes, culturally mixed, and recognize their own political stands (Bordewich, 1996, p. 71). These have changed over the years, but before the reconstruction of the Native Americans the people were identifiable and knew who they were. Before the Europeans came and changed their living they felt one with the land. They believe the land was not to be owned by anyone. The Wakon’da, a god, who in there words related to all things, made the land. Also, they expressed their feelings for nature as in peace confidence. Before the ‘whites’ took over the land the Native Americans had their own laws, as they do know, but one of the most important laws was to respect and keep peace with the dominant race and others around them. This meaning the Natives had never wanted to start fighting with the other races (Brophy, 1966, p. 24-25). They wanted to keep to themselves and keep the land clean and healthy. They did everything in and for nature.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Indian dances were a spiritual way for the Indians to express themselves. Handed down from generation to generation the dances are not a form of their own movement. They do the steps of the ancestors exceptionally in the religious ceremony dances. The only time a dancer will go outside of the steps is when it’s a personal ex...

Mastering Teacher Leadership Business Research Essay

This case presents a situation that is quite common in the education field and addresses the responses by institutions to new legislation imposed upon them. As is often the case, the legislators do not address the impacts to organizations, leaving the actual implementation to the end user (i.e., public and private schools). In this particular case, Wittenburg University (WU) is faced with the decision of whether to develop and deliver a Master of Arts degree in classroom leadership. 1.) Build the management-research question hierarchy for this opportunity. The initial step in the research is the creation of a management-research question hierarchy, to formalize the process. For this case study, the management-research hierarchy is presented in Appendix A. The purpose of this hierarchy is to examine the various stages of the research question and present a logical sequence of increasing focus that will allow the development of a survey instrument that can be delivered to potential pro gram applicants. The initial stage is to identify and state the management dilemma, which in this case is the impending new legislation. The State of Ohio intends to require all licenced teachers to have, or complete, a master’s degree before obtaining their second licensure to teach. Given that this is new legislation and WU is not obligated to offer a program, the â€Å"management dilemma† actually presents an opportunity for WU to develop a new degree program, thereby increasing revenue for the university. The second stage of the process is to identify the management questions. In this case, WU needs to decide what purpose would the new program serve?; would this program duplicate teacher development courses?; what format should the new program utilize (e.g., part-time, distance)? The third stage addresses the particular research questions: Does WU have the faculty/administrative capacity to offer the full program?; is there sufficient return on investment to offer the program?; and if all is positive, should WU develop and offer the program. Investigative questions, as part of a survey instrument should examine the demand for the program, what is the potential market, what other competition exists, and what would the program-costing model look like. One other variable that should be explored is the potential of Ohio teachers moving to  another state to avoid the legislation. On a similar scale, movement within the policing industry is often impacted by similar factors, so this question should be examined. The final stage of the process is that actual measurement component, whereby researchers will examine the demographic information, correlate and analyze the data collected from the surveys. In order to increase the confidence level of the analysis, survey questions should utilize appropriate ranking/rating scales, and ensure open-ended questions are avoided. Once the data has been analyzed, researchers will be able to provide WU administrators with sufficient information upon which to base a decision on whether to pro ceed with the program. 2. Evaluate the appropriateness of the exploratory stage of the research design. As noted earlier, the new State of Ohio legislation presents an opportunity for WU to implement a new graduate study program, and increase their enrollments. Before proceeding to the program development stage, however, WU needs to conduct exploratory research to guide their decision making process. An initial step in the process is to conduct secondary research, utilizing available resources, to identify similar programs (i.e., competition) and responses to similar legislation in other states. Given that the majority of this secondary data will be discovered via internet searches, the researchers should conduct a source evaluation. The course text identifies five factors to evaluate secondary data: â€Å"Purpose – the explicit or hidden agenda of the information source Scope – the breadth and depth of topic coverage, including time period, geographical limitations, and the criteria for information inclusion. Authority – the level of data (primary, secondary, tertiary) and the credentials of the source author(s) Audience – the characteristics and background of the people or groups for whom the source was created Format – how the information is presented and the degree of ease of locating specific information within the source.† (Cooper & Schindler, 2008, p. 109) Sources of appropriate data could include alumni surveys from WU, State of Ohio statistics related to post secondary institutions, national data bases, and a study of existing Master of Education (MEd) programs. By utilizing the above noted filters to secondary information, the researchers will be able to ensure they have considered all variables and factors in making a  decision. 3. Evaluate the sampling strategy. In this case study, WU mailed the survey to all of the 1,600 identified teachers residing in Clark County, which is the home county of WU; essentially this is not a sample, but rather a census. The remaining 400 surveys were then mailed to â€Å"systematic sampling† to teachers in the surrounding counties. I see an issue with this, as the parameters of the systematic sampling are not detailed; for example, were teachers who already completed a MEd degree included in the sample? I would suggest that the 400 surveys were mailed to a convenience sampling rather than a proper probability sample. Factors such as these may have contributed to the low response rate from the survey. Given the implementation time line of the new legislation, it would have been valuable to survey potential teachers (i.e., those currently in an undergraduate program), as they would likely form the WU MEd cohort. This would give a clearer picture of the market potential of the program. 4. Prepare a preliminary analysis plan for this study. Which variables do you want frequencies on? Why? The initial stage of the data correlation and analysis would be the proper coding of the data and entry into an appropriate software database. For this case study, the data was presented as an Excel file, so the exploratory data analysis would include a complete descriptive statistical calculations and frequencies for applicable questions. I would suggest questions that create nominal or ordinal data are the most appropriate for frequency tables, and provide a clearer picture of the survey respondents. The data sets may be utilized to confirm if the teacher sample is representative of the overall population, and cross tabulations conducted to draw correlations between categories. I would suggest that data specifically addressing respondents who require a master’s degree, or those contemplating pursuing higher education would be of particular interest, as they represent the p otential student market. Researchers will also need to account for non-response errors and missing data within the coding and analysis stages 5. Which variables do you want to cross-tabulate? Why? Given the nature of the research questions, it would be beneficial to identity, through crosstabulations, those teachers who have not yet applied for their second licensure to teach and what level of education those teachers currently have. This would clarify the potential  market for the WU program. In addition, cross-tabulations to identify potential teachers relative to their home counties would give a clearer picture of those teachers who could/would realistically attend the WU program over another program closer to their homes. A final cross tabulation that may prove beneficial is the number of teachers who currently are not impacted by the new legislation, but may look to the WU MEd. program for professional development courses. As noted earlier, the new legislation presents an opportunity for to expand upon their graduate level programs, but given the costs to initiate a new program, the decision to proceed  must be based upon valid and credible research data. Therefore, the exploratory research undertaken is critical, as it will form the foundation for any decisions made by the university administration. References Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2008). Business research methods. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2010). Practical research planning and design. Upper Saddle River, NY: Pearson Education Inc. 6

English the Most Amazing Subject

English Class 8 Task 1 Reading exercise Read the novel, ‘The Boy in The Striped Pyjamas’ by John Boyne; Chapters 1- 4 Focus on: †¢ What themes are explored in the first four chapters? †¢ The relationship between Bruno and Maria. Task 2 Speaking and Listening Prepare a 2 minute talk to your class about something that really irritates you. It does not necessarily require a very formal language. Follow the steps below: 1. Decide on a topic. It’s always best to talk about things you actually know about and to express feelings you really have. . Structure your talk. It may be brief, but it still requires: †¢ An opening in which you quickly grab the audience’s attention and let them know what you’re going to talk about. †¢ A main body in which you give a couple of reasons or ideas to support your point. †¢ A conclusion in which you leave the listeners with a memorable phrase. Task 3 Grammar Practice adverbs and adjectives using the following websites: †¢ http://www. schoolexpress. com/fws/cat. php? id=2287 †¢ http://sites. google. com/site/jostombaugh/adjectivesadverbs Task 4 Spelling Learn the spellings of the following words: 1. Autumn 2. Knowledge 3. Development 4. Embarrass 5. Definite 6. Audible 7. Concentration 8. Assessment 9. Accommodation 10. Diamond 11. Beginning 12. Height 13. Queue 14. Business 15. Beneath 16. Tomorrow 17. Jealous 18. Questionnaire 19. Issue 20. Atmosphere 21. Continuous 22. Marriage 23. Imaginary 24. Improvise 25. Miscellaneous 26. Happened 27. Process 28. February 29. Forty 30. Separate 31. Straight 32. Success 33. Reference 34. Technique 35. Conscience 36. Murmur 37. Diary 38. Design 39. Column 40. Weird 41. Listening 42. Montague 43. Mantua 44. Capulet 45. Shakespeare 46. Idolatry 47. Adversaries 48. Nuptial 49. Forfeit 50. Foreshadowing 51. Shroud 52. Apothecary 53. Tybalt 54. Abram 55. Balthasar 56. Rosaline 57. Cemetery 58. Epitaph 59. Exile 60. Enmity ———————– NOTE: †¢ Students will be assessed on the given tasks when they return to school. †¢ Any queries regarding these tasks should be addressed to: [email  protected] com

Chondrogenesis Of Adult Stem Cells Health And Social Care Essay

1.0 IntroductionDegenerative gristle diseases, such as degenerative arthritis ( OA ) , affect 1000000s of people worldwide and therefore have tremendous societal and economic effects. Osteoarthritis is characterized by progressive devastation of articular gristle and finally the full articulation, associated with variable grades of local redness, motional hurting, puffiness of the damaged tissue and thickener of the articulations. The internal fix capacity of articular gristle is hapless due to several alone features of the tissue, including slow turnover of gristle collagen, deficiency of vascularisation and the low figure of root cells that could lend to the fix. In mature articular gristle, chondrocytes have small intrinsic potency for fix. Repair may happen by an extrinsic mechanism, which depends on mesenchymal stromal cells ( MSCs ) in next connective tissue. Several intervention options have been used for gristle fix in gristle lesions, including soft tissue trades, and chondrocyte and osteochondral organ transplant. However these methods are limited by the hapless handiness of suited donor tissue and the hazard of infection and implant failure associated w ith entire joint replacings [ 14 ] . These restrictions are the driving force behind much research into cell-based methods for efficaciously handling diseased or damaged gristle [ 15 ] . Tissue technology has been defined as â€Å" an interdisciplinary field that applies the rules of technology and the life sciences toward the development of biological replacements that restore, maintain, or better tissue map † [ 14 ] ) . Tissue technology schemes by and large involve the undermentioned phases: ( 1 ) designation and isolation of a suited beginning of cells ; ( 2 ) industry of a device to either carry or encapsulate the cells ; ( 3 ) uniform seeding of cells onto or into the device and appropriate civilization ; and ( 4 ) in vivo nidation of the engineered concept ( Figure-1 [ 16 ] ) . Figure-1: Conventional representation of a tissue technology scheme: ( A ) isolation of an appropriate cell population ; ( B ) fiction of a scaffold ; ( C ) seeding of cells into scaffold and in vitro civilization of cell-scaffold concept ; and ( D ) nidation of tissue engineered device. The field of tissue technology has opened up new possibilities for fix and regeneration of gristle by uniting cells, biomaterial scaffolds, and bioactive signals [ 1, 2 ] . Mesenchymal cells ( MSCs ) offer a promising beginning due to its ability to proliferate extensively and distinguish into multiple cell line of descents in vitro and in vivo, including chondrocytes, bone-forming cells and adipocytes [ 6 ] . MSCs are present in a assortment of grownup tissues, such as bone marrow and adipose tissue. Adult root cells derived from adipose tissue ( adipose-derived root cells, ASCs ) [ 3,4 ] and bone marrow ( bone marrow-derived mesenchymal root cells, BMSCs ) [ 5,6 ] have shown important chondrogenic potency for such a tissue technology attack [ 7-10 ] . The BMSCs or human bone marrow stromal root cells can be cultured, expanded and so transplanted into the injured site or, after seeding on molded polymer scaffolds, placed back in the patient to bring forth appropriate tissue concepts. It is a instead clip overwhelming process for the patients and the research lab employees. Besides, these BMSCs have a low cell figure upon reaping so they need to be expanded and so transplanted to the injured site or seeded on/in a polymer scaffold. The procedure takes much clip as besides the clip it requires in the research lab, the patients need to be operated twice, first to roll up the BMSCs and-or stabilise the defect and so to put the scaffold or transfer the BMSCs. Adipose tissue might be a promising alternate beginning of root cells that could hold far-reaching effects on several Fieldss including gristle tissue technology. It is really good known that root cells derived from adipose tissue are capable to distinguish into adipocytes, chondrocytes, bone-forming cells and myoblasts, like Mesenchymal Stem Cells ( MSCs ) . ASCs have attracted involvement due to ease of isolation process and comparative copiousness handiness of cells as compared to BMSCs [ 11, 12 ] . Large figure of ASCs in adipose tissue makes them an ideal campaigner for so called â€Å" one measure surgical process † for the intervention of osteo chondral defects [ 13 ] . Chondrogenic distinction of these cells may be induced by specii ¬?c cytokines, growing factors [ 22 ] , biophysical stimulation such as hydrostatic force per unit area, hyperosmolarity, hypoxia and proviso of a suited three-dimensional ( 3-D ) environment. In this literature describe the focal point is on methods used for bring oning adipose derived root cells and bone marrow derived root cells into the chondrogenic line of descent and besides to know apart initiation methods between adipose derived root cells and bone marrow derived root cells. This leads to treatments on ( 1 ) rudimentss of gristle tissue technology and the usage of root cells ( 2 ) features and biological facets of BMSCs ( 3 ) features and biological facets of root cells derived from adipose tissue ( 4 ) difference between these two root cells, ( 5 ) Factors used for bring oning adipose root cells in to chondrogenic line of descent2.0 Cartilage2.1 Cartilage biological scienceCartilage is a an avascular, aneural and alymphatic connective tissue nowadays in many sites of the craniate organic structure, including the jointing articulations between castanetss, rib coop, ear, nose, bronchial tubings and intervertebral phonograph record. Cartilage is classified in three s ubtypes based on its morphology and the composing of the extracellular matrix ( ECM ) asA hyaloid gristle, elastic cartilageA andA fibro-cartilage. Out of the three subtypes hyaloid gristle is rich in collagen type II and proteoglycan and it is found in between articulations. Besides it is the lone gristle subtype that can prolong mechanical strain. Articular gristle, which is present at the jointing surfaces of castanetss within synovial articulations, is formed from hyaloid gristle. The location of articular gristle within the articulatio genus articulation is shown in Figure 2. Articular gristle forms a lasting bed with a thickness of 0.5 to 7.0mm at the surface cut downing clash between the castanetss and administering tonss across the full articulation surface [ 89 ] . The one disadvantage of gristle is that unlike other type of tissues, foods are non supplied by blood vass alternatively diffuse through the matrix and gristle is repaired at a slower rate than other connective t issues. This is due to the deficiency of the three-step lesion mending procedure nowadays in other tissues ; i.e. redness, proliferation and tissue remodeling. Chondrogenesis is the procedure by which gristle is formed from condensed mesenchymal connectiveA tissue, which differentiates intoA chondrocytesA and secretes the molecules that form the extracellular matrix. The procedure begins with the collection and condensation of loose mesenchyme. Early in foetal development, the greater portion of the skeleton is cartilaginous. ThisA temporaryA gristle is bit by bit replaced by bone ( Endochondral ossification ) , a procedure that ends at pubescence. In contrast, the gristle in the articulations remains unossified during the whole of life and is, hence, A permanent. Factors such as the bone morphogenetic proteins ( BMPs ) are known to play critical functions in the compression of mesenchymal cells and the defining of the condensation [ 17 ] . As discussed before, onceA damaged gristle has limited fix capablenesss sinceA chondrocytesA are bound inA blank, they can non migrate to damaged countries. Fig-2 Location of articular gristle within the articulatio genus articulation ( adapted from Drury and Shipley 1998 ) .2.2 Cartilage tissue technologyAs gristle healing is limited, there exists a turning demand for cell based schemes for gristle fix. The quickly rising field of tissue technology holds great promise for the coevals of functional tissue replacements, including gristle, by technology tissue constructsA in vitroA for subsequent implantationA in vivo. The basic rule is to use a biocompatible, structurally and automatically sound scaffold that is seeded with an appropriate cell beginning, and is loaded with bioactive molecules to advance cellular distinction and/or ripening. Although advancement has been made late in technology gristle of assorted forms and sizes for decorative intents [ 18 ] , the challenges of technology a weight-bearing tissue, such as articular gristle that consists of multiphasic cellular architecture, are important. Articular gristle provides its ain peculiar challenges for tissue technology. Though its construction appears simple and contains merely one cell type, it has a complex and extremely organized extracellular matrix ( ECM ) . The physical belongingss of articular gristle depend on the construction and organisation of the supermolecules in the ECM. The construction of collagen gives it impressive tensile belongingss, which is utile to bring forth a tissue that is non merely strong in tenseness but besides immune to compaction. This is achieved by make fulling the interfibrillar matrix with a really high content of proteoglycan, chiefly aggrecanA [ 19, 20 ] . The challenge for gristle tissue technology is to bring forth gristle tissue with suited construction and propertiesA ex vivo, which can be implanted into articulations to supply a natural fix that with clip, will go incorporate with the patient ‘s tissues. There have been a figure of successful attacks to weave applied scientist gristle, including the usage of natural and man-made biomaterial scaffolds, allogeneic and autologous beginnings of mature chondrocytes and chondroprogenitor cells, biophysical cues such as hydrostatic force per unit area, hyperosmolarity, hypoxia, chondroinductive growing factors, such as the transforming growing factor-I?s ( TGF-I?s ) , and combinations thereof. Some of the current progresss in cartilage tissue technology are highlighted here.3.0 Characterization and biological facets of Adipose root cells and bone marrow root cells3.1 Bone marrow-derived root cells ( BMSCs )Bone marrow contains three types of root cells, haematopoietic root cells, m esenchymal root cells and endothelial root cells. Hematopoietic root cells give rise to the three categories of blood cells that are found in the circulation white blood cellsA ( leucocytes ) , A ruddy blood cells ( red blood cells ) , andA plateletsA ( platelets ) . Mesenchymal root cellsA are found arrayed around the cardinal fistula in the bone marrow. They have the capableness to distinguish intoA bone-forming cells, chondrocytes, A myocytes, and many other types of cells. Stem cells obtained from bone marrow are found in the stroma of the marrow. These cells are typically obtained from bone marrow aspirates from marrow graft givers. When cultured in vitro, bone marrow root cells exhibit a fibroblast-like morphology. Marrow stromal cells have been studied and certain cell surface markers have been identified which are utile in cell choice and finding of readying of marrow root cell populations [ 21 ] . In add-on to their ability to distinguish into multiple cell line of descents, the usage of bone marrow root cells offer a beginning of cells that is isolated and expanded in vitro. Bone marrow-derived root cells were isolated and described for the i ¬?rst clip by Friedenstein and Owen at the University of Oxford, UK, in the 1960s, followed by intensive work on the survey of the belongingss of these cells [ 23-29 ] . They took bone marrow and incubated for 4 hours in fictile civilization dishes and removed the non-adherent cells. A heterogonous population of cells was retrieved, with some adherent cells exhibiting a spindle form ; besides, they multiplied quickly in vitro, organizing distinguishable settlements called colony-forming unit i ¬?broblasts ( CFU-Fs ) . Finally, these cells were successfully isolated from several mammals, including worlds [ 30,31 ] . In add-on, the CFU-Fs were found to hold multi-potent, therefore connoting that they have stem cell belongingss [ 29,32 ] . These cells differentiated into multiple mesenchymal cell line of descents in vitro, including bone [ 33 ] , ligament [ 34 ] , adipose [ 33 ] , gristle [ 35,36 ] and musculus [ 3 7 ] . Similarly, following the organ transplant of CFU-Fs in vivo, they formed little sedimentations of bone, gristle or fat [ 37-39 ] . This was further supported the multi-potent potency of CFU-Fs. Similar cells have been isolated from different mesenchymal tissues, including synovial [ 40 ] , sinews [ 41 ] , skeletal musculuss [ 42 ] and adipose tissue [ 43,44 ] . BMSCs are normally isolated from the mononucleate bed of bone marrow after separation by denseness gradient centrifugation. These mononucleate cells are cultured in media incorporating 10-15 % foetal calf or autologous serum [ 45 ] . The BMSCs adhere to the tissue civilization plastic, go forthing little adherent i ¬?broblast-like cells. Thereafter, the cells divide and proliferate quickly. For in vitro chondrogenic distinction MSCs are needed to be kept in high denseness 3-D environment. This can be attained by aggregating the cells in mircomass pellets or as suspension in alginate. Different man-made or biological scaffolds like agarose, collagen suspensions, fibrin gels and biopolymers can be used [ 46-48 ] . Alginate bead civilization is an first-class tool for chondrogenic distinction surveies in vitro. Alginate is a additive polyose which is soluble in aqueous solutions and cells can be homogenously suspended in it. It is cross-linked in presence of Ca or other bivalent ions to organize a polymerized hydrogel. Importantly, it can be easy resolubilized by a chelating agent ethylenediaminetetraacetate ( EDTA ) to divide cells from the ECM [ 49 ] . Chondrogenic distinction is a complicated procedure necessitating good defined conditions, hence, external foetal calf serum ( FCS ) usually used for proliferation of MSCs has to be substituted by defined medium addendum, like widely used ITSa„? . ITSa„? contains insulin, beta globulin, selenious acid and linoleic acid suspended in solution of bovine serum albumen. Insulin as a endocrine addendum is necessary for endurance of cells as it is involved in fatty acid and animal starch synthesis. Transferrin is an iron-binding protein for endocrines and foods, hence, it is critical for in vitro cell growing and selenious acid is a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase necessary for cell membrane unity. Linoleic acid is an built-in constituent of chondrogenic medium, like many unsaturated fatty acids it is an built-in membrane constituent and of import for cell growing. It is non a specific chondrogenic distinction factor but in combination with Tgf-? has profound stimulatory consequence on chondrogenesis. Tgf-? entirely and in combination with Decadron enhance chondrogenesis [ 50,51 ] . The chondrogenic medium has to be enriched with proline because this amino acid is found in really high concen trations in extracellular matrices. Pro-x-gly-pro sequence motive appears really often in collagens where ten is normally a impersonal amino acid. Ascorbic acid is required as an negatron giver, therefore it contributes collagen synthesis by moving as a carbon monoxide factor for lysine proline hydroxylation necessity for the formation of typical-triple coiling collagen constructions [ 52 ] . As all the needed conditions are met MSCs start to lose their fibroblast like features and get down showing chondrocyte particular ECM which can be monitored by look of chondrogenic markers. Several other methods are used to assist distinguish MSCs into osteocytes, adipocytes, myocytes or tenocytes in vitro. Bone marrow aspirates are still being used though there are major restraints. The chief restraints in utilizing BMSCs are: heterogenous population of the cells, painful process to roll up the bone marrow and the population of MSCs nowadays in bone marrow is really low ( 0.001-0.01 % or about 1 MSC per 105 disciple stromal cells ) [ 53 ] . Besides MSCs needs to be expanded in vitro for a longer period of clip before adequate cells are present for seeding the scaffold or organ transplant [ 53 ] . These restraints favours the statement for placing new beginnings as feasible options to cram marrow, but farther surveies in clinically relevant animate being theoretical accounts are needed to better qualify the comparative – in our case- chondrogenic potency. One of these options might lie in the usage of root cells derived from adipose tissue.3.2 Adipose tissue-derived root cellsIn order to utilize adipose tissue for the usage of tissue technology, the composing of this tissue needs to be analyzed foremost. Adipose tissue is specialized connective tissue that maps as the major storage site for fat in the signifier of triglycerides. In grownup mammals, the major majority of adipose tissue is a loose association of lipid-filled cells, which are held in a model of collagen fibres. Adipose tissue, better known as fat is composed of blood cells, endothelial cells, pericytes, fibroblasts, adipose precursor cells, and adipocytes [ 54, 55 ] . Fat is divided into two types ( I ) br own adipose tissue ( BAT ) and white adipose tissue ( WAT ) . The morphology and map of brown fat cells are distinguishable from white adipocytes. The map of BAT is to interpret energy into heat production [ 56 ] . Phenotypically, brown fat cells are rich in chondriosome and accumulate lipoids in multiple little droplets [ 57 ] . The tissue what is normally recognized as â€Å" the fat † , which is besides the larger proportion of the organic structure fat, consists of WAT. Mature adipocytes of WAT are cells with one big lipid droplet and really small cytol with the karyon located at fringe of the cell [ 54 ] . This morphology is described as the signet pealing signifier and the cell may be termed a univacuolar adipocyte. White adipose tissue serves three maps: heat insularity, mechanical shock absorber, and most significantly, a beginning of energy [ 55 ] ( Fig 1 ) Figure 1a†Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ White fat cell and brown fat cell. Note the individual big lipid vacuole in the white fat cell and the legion smaller lipid vacuoles in the brown fat cell. LV: lipid vacuole ; M: chondriosome ; N: karyon. Artwork courtesy of Dr. John Horwitz, U.C. Davis. The white fat cells range in size from 25 to 200 micrometers. Mitochondrions are found preponderantly in the thicker part of the cytoplasmatic rim near the karyon. The big lipid droplet does non look to incorporate any intracellular cell organs. A brown fat cell may make a diameter of 60 micrometers and the lipid droplet within the cell may make 25 micrometers in diameter. The brown colour of this tissue is derived from the cells ‘ rich vascularization and dumbly jammed chondriosomes. These chondriosomes vary in size and may be round, egg-shaped, or filiform in form [ 56,57 ] .3.3 Biological facets of ASCs in vivo and in vitroThe exact beginning of the adipocyte, the chief cells of adipose tissue, is still non to the full understood. The earliest phase in adipocyte distinction is pluripotent root cells which give rise to mesenchymal precursor cells [ 58 ] . These pluripotent root cells are the adipose-derived grownup root ( ASCs ) cells. These ASCs are capable to distinguish in to the chondrogenic, osteogenic, and adipogenic line of descents, neural cells and clamber [ 58 ] . ASCs, besides called processed lipoaspirate cells ( PLA cells ) , are considered a separate cell population within the adipose tissue [ 4 ] . The capacity of ASCs to distinguish into several tissues suggests the presence of a root cell population within adipose tissue, it can non be ruled out though the presence of pluripotent cells from other beginnings, like marrow-derived MSCs from peripheral blood, or dedifferentiation of mature adipocytes will ensue in the coevals of pluripotent cells. However, the presence of MSCs in peripheral blood is non likely. The sum of MSCs in bone marrow is low, i1 MSC per 105 stromal cells [ 6,53 ] and the sum of MSCs in peripheral blood is even lower. One major advantage of ASCs is that it can be isolated from many fat terminals within the organic structure by minimally invasive suction lipectomy and by subsequent enzymatic digestion of adipose tissue [ 4 ] . Besides deficit of autologous donor tissue is, in the instance of adipose tissue, really improbable in most persons. ASCs are located in the stromal-vascular fraction ( SVF ) of the host adipose tissue. Adipose tissues are normally harvested by resection or suction lipectomy and later digested with collagenase type I. Once the stromal-vascular multitudes are isolated, they are cultured in lineage-specific civilization media. For chondrocyte distinction the cells are cultured in DMEM supplemented with FBS, insulin, transforming growing factor ( TGF ) , ascorbate and Decadron at suited concentrations. ASCs are able to defy freeze/thaw direction without any apparent impact on the growing characteristic. However, when adipose tissue is harvested from the organic structure the surgical processs used have some impact on the subsequent growing profile of ASC. Ultrasound-assisted suction lipectomy consequences in a lower frequence of proliferating ASC, every bit good as a longer population duplicating clip of ASC, compared with pure resection and puffy resection. Phenotypic markers are non affected by ultr asound intervention [ 59 ] . Guilak et Al. showed that ASCs ringers derived from lipoaspirates can distinguish along two or more of the adipogenic, osteogenic, chondrogenic and neuron-like cells [ 60 ] . These findings coupled with the fact that ASCs can undergo several population doublings while retaining their distinction capablenesss, supports the hypothesis that ASCs are a type of multi-potent grownup root cells [ 60, 61 ] . In vitro, distinction of ASCs cells can be induced by the supplementation of endocrines and substrates to the growing medium. Some illustrations are: Glucocorticoids ( corticosterone, hydrocortisone, dexamethason, and cortisol ) , phosphodiesterase inhibitors ( IBMX, forskolin ) , peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ( PPAR I? ) ligands ( adipogenic distinction ) , indomethacin, fibrates ( Atromid-S, bezafibrate, and fenofibrate ) , insulin, and liothyronine. Besides growing factors have been found to modulate distinction, like basic FGF, EGF, PDGF, TGF I? , and TNF [ 44 ] . An illustration of lineage-specific distinction induced by media supplementation is demonstrated by Zuk et Al. [ 44 ] . The experimental and clinical grounds shows that ASCs are an equal alternate beginning for regenerative medical specialty peculiarly because it can be maintained in vitro for drawn-out periods of clip with stable population doublings and low aging degrees [ 4 ] . Although the bone marrow is a dependable beginning of root cells, its crop is an invasive process and the figure of stray cells can be low and age dependant. Pittenger et Al. [ 6 ] showed that merely 0.01-0.001 % of mononucleate cells isolated from the bone marrow lead to colony-forming units. On the other manus, adipose tissue can give big sums of root cells and can be obtained in copiousness. As such, ASCs open legion and promising positions for regenerative therapies.4.0 Factors impacting chondrogenesis4.1 Consequence of Growth factors on chondrogenesisThe usage of cytokines and growing factors is really of import for the development of a defined civilization environment for directing the chondrogenic distinction of root cells. Indeed, legion cytokines and growing factors have been implicated in chondrogenesis. As the procedure of chondrogenesis is so closely related with osteogenesis, many of the cytokines and growing factors that promote chondrogenic distinction are besides some what involved in osteogenic distinction [ 62, 63 ] . Hence, the challenge is to happen an optimized elusive combination of these assorted cytokines and growing factors that would assist in distinction specifically toward the chondrogenic line of descent. Among the most powerful inducers of chondrogenic distinction are members of the transforming growing factor beta ( TGF-I? ) household. Besides the assorted iso-forms of TGF-I? [ 64,66-67 ] and bone morphogenetic protein ( BMP ) [ 65,68 ] , other members of the TGF-I? ace household include activin [ 69 ] , osteogenic protein-1 [ 70 ] , and growing distinction factor 5 ( GDF-5 ) [ 71 ] are used. The effects of cytokines of the TGF-I? ace household on chondrogenic distinction are transduced through two major intracellular signaling tracts, SMAD household of signaling molecules [ 72 ] and involves mitogen-activated protein kinase ( MAPK ) signaling [ 73 ] . Interestingly, both signaling Cascadess are activated by the same TGF-I? receptor composite. Barry et al demonstrated that TGF-I? 2 and TGF-I? 3 iso-forms have stronger chondrogenic potency than TGF-I?1 [ 78 ] . Kim et Al showed that combinations of greater doses of presently known growing factors, TGF-I? 2 and IGF-I, lead to a chondr ogenesis from ASCs comparable to that observed with BMSCs [ 79 ] . Another household of cytokines that plays an of import function in chondrogenesis is comprised of assorted iso-forms of fibroblast growing factor ( FGF ) . The effects of FGF on chondrogenic distinction are transduced chiefly through MAPK signaling [ 74 ] . This leads to increased look of the written text factor Sox9, which is the maestro regulator of chondrogenesis. Besides the TGF-I? and FGF household of cytokines, insulin like growing factor-1 ( IGF-1 ) [ 75-77 ] has besides been shown to hold effects on chondrogenic distinction.4.2 Effect of biomaterial scaffolds ( biologic, biochemical and biomechanical belongingss ) on ChondrogenesisA broad scope of scaffolds have been used in gristle tissue technology surveies. Cartilage regeneration utilizing scaffolds involves seeding extremely porous biodegradable scaffolds with donor cells and/or growing factors. After seeding the scaffolds with the giver cells and/or grow ing factors, these scaffolds are implanted. Cells attached to the scaffold, so retroflex, distinguish into chondrogenic cells and form into normal healthy bone as the scaffold degrades. These scaffolds may be categorized with regard to the types of stuff used ( natural or man-made, degradable or non-degradable ) , the geometry of the scaffold ( gels, hempen meshes or porous sponges ) and their construction ( entire porousness, pore size, connectivity and distribution ; [ 103 ] . It is important that a tissue technology scaffold is fabricated from a stuff that is biocompatible, allows fond regard of cells, ECM secernment and tissue formation without the initiation of an inflammatory or toxic response [ 104 ] . In order for cells to be able to infiltrate the construction uniformly, it should incorporate a big figure of interrelated pores [ 105 ] . The size of the pores is of import to the infiltration and fond regard of the cells, for chondrocytes an optimal pore size of between 100 a nd 200I?m has been suggested [ 104 ] . The scaffold must besides be permeable, to let diffusion of foods into the matrix and the remotion of metabolic and degradation byproducts from it. Finally, it is of import that the scaffold has mechanical belongingss that allow it to defy nidation and the tonss experienced in vivo Many natural stuffs have been used because of their similarity with gristle ECM constituents, for illustration hyaluronan and collagen [ 106 ] . Other natural stuffs used in gristle tissue technology surveies include agarose, alginate and chitosan. Natural polymers are advantageous in tissue technology applications as they can undergo cell-specific interactions. The usage of natural stuffs, nevertheless, is limited by the big fluctuation between batches, the deficiency of big supplies for commercial usage and as they are frequently derived from non-human tissue they carry the hazard of reassigning pathogens [ 107 ] . Man-made polymers are frequently used in penchant to natural stuffs as it is possible to mass-produce polymers with custom-designed belongingss. Poly ( lactic acid ) ( PLA ) , poly ( glycolic acid ) ( PGA ) and co-polymers of PLA and PGA ( PLGA ) are normally used in tissue technology surveies as they have Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) blessing for usage within the human organic structure. Ideally a scaffold that is to be implanted into the human organic structure should be biodegradable ) and the debasement merchandises should be non-toxic [ 104 ] .4.3 Effect of hypoxia on chondrogenesisOxygen lack within gristle tissues induces a hypoxic province which affects chondrocyte map. Cells exposed to hypoxia respond in many ways by impacting cistron look, distinction, and programmed cell death [ 91 ] . Transcription factor HIF-1I ± is considered as a survival factor for bring oning in hypoxic environments which inhibits proliferation but increases ECM production in mesenchymal ro ot cells ( MSCs ) and chondrocytes [ 92, 93 ] . Conditional omission of the cistron encoding HIF-1I ± in chondrocytes consequences in programmed cell death in hypoxic countries [ 92 ] and besides well reduces the chondrogenic possible [ 94 ] , proposing that hypoxia-induced up-regulation HIF-1I ± supports chondrogenic committedness. HIF-2I ± has besides been shown to command hypoxia enhanced chondrogenesis through both SOX9 dependant and independent signaling tracts [ 95 ] . Thus, hypoxia enhances the chondrogenic potency of mesenchymal cell populations during the development phase and under diseased conditions.4.4 Effect of hydrostatic force per unit area on chondrogenesisHydrostatic force per unit area has been proved to hold positive consequence on gristle in a figure of surveies [ 80 ] as exposure to increased hydrostatic force per unit area coincide with increased gristle thickness in vivo [ 81,82 ] . Cartilage is a extremely hydrous tissue, represent 70 % to 80 % H2O per moisture weight. Cartilage cells located in articular articulations experience hydrostatic force per unit area during periods of lading. The synovial fluid within the joint capsule transmits force per unit area to the H2O trapped within the gristle matrix, bring forthing a unvarying burden on chondrocytes in the tissue. The attractive force of negatively charged proteoglycan molecules within gristle causes its high H2O content, making a matrix that is composed chiefly of interstitial fluid. The swelling force per unit area of the proteoglycans is balanced by the tenseness of the collagen web, leting the tissue to swell significantly but still be a comparatively stiff stuff. High H2O content in the tissue plays a major function in the ability of the tissue to defy big compressive forces. Cartilage is incompressible under physiological degrees of hydrostatic force per unit area ( 7-10 MPa ) , ensuing in minimum tissue distortion [ 83-85 ] . Loading in this mode is comparatively safe for the structural unity of the tissue because it is a pure hydrostatic force per unit area that does non stretch or shear the tissue matrix. When gristle is loaded, the force is transmitted throughout the tissue, the fluid stage ab initio supports the applied burden, because H2O is trapped within the solid matrix of the tissue because of its low permeableness. The alteration in force per unit area from within the matrix finally forces fluid out of the tissue and into the synovial pit. The opposition that the fluid experiences as it leaves the matrix helps disperse energy and allows for a gradual softening of the tissue. This procedure efficaciously cushions the daze of a sudden burden without damaging the cells or extracellular matrix. The force per unit area that is produced by the tight fluid Acts of the Apostless uniformly on the chondrocytes within the matrix. This interstitial force per unit area, which for diarthrodial articulations ranges between 7 and 10 MPa during normal a ctivities [ 83,84 ] , is applied sporadically to the cells when walking, running, or switching weight while standing. Research workers emulated the mechanical stimulation in the research lab to engineer a higher quality gristle tissue [ 85-87 ] . The continuance and magnitude of hydrostatic lading vary widely as demonstrated by different surveies. Smith and associates exposed high-density chondrocyte monolayers to 10 MPa at 1Hz for 4h a twenty-four hours and obtained an addition of 65 % in GAG synthesis [ 88 ] . In another experiment utilizing the same lading regimen on cell monolayers, Smith and associates obtained a 9-fold addition in type II collagen messenger RNA and a 20-fold addition in aggrecan messenger RNA [ 89 ] . In a 3-dimensional experiment by Carver and Heath, concentrations of sulfated proteoglycans in civilized scaffolds were found to be twice every bit high as in controls after utilizing a 3.5-MPa, intermittent force ( 5/15 s on/off for 20 min every 4 H ) [ 90 ] . T hese consequences show that hydrostatic force per unit area is of import to chondrogenesis, particularly when cells are grown in a 3-dimensional environment.4.5 Effect of hyperosmolarity on chondrogenesisDuring mechanical burden, flow of H2O out of joint gristle will take to increase in osmotic force per unit area within the tissue. This indicates that osmotic force per unit area may positively act upon chondrogenesis. Osmotic force per unit area within the tissues additions due to the keeping of the extremely anionic proteoglycan and the necessary cationic counter ions and the osmotic force per unit area around the chondrocyte is changed straight by the burden on the tissue. Assorted surveies conducted to look into the effects of osmolarity on chondrocyte ECM synthesis shown that chondrocyte proteoglycan synthesis can be decreased through the application of hyper- or hypo-osmotic conditions [ 98,100,101 ] . Besides a survey conducted late explained that application of dynamic hypo- osmotic emphasiss resulted in increased look of gristle ECM cistrons [ 96 ] . The survey besides showed an addition in glycosaminoglycan synthesis by articular chondrocytes under hyperosmotic conditions [ 97 ] over 24h civilizations. It besides showed the demand for p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase ( MAPK ) signaling, a transduction pathway known to be regulated by osmolarity in many beings [ 99 ] . Besides Wouter et Al. in his recent survey demonstrated that the application of hyperosmolarity and hypoxia in combination, is able to bring on chondrogenesis in ASCs to the same degree as initiation with transforming growing factor I?1 [ 102 ] .5.0 Conclusion and future waiesThe usage of MSCs in gristle tissue technology applications is a powerful ( new ) tool in the development of clinical schemes for fix of site-specific gristle defects and will assist to handle assorted gristle upsets. Currently bone marrow aspirates are still considered to be the most accessible and enriched beginning of MSCs [ 6 ] . However, the sum of cells at initial crop are limited in bone marrow aspirations, which makes bone marrow non an optimum beginning of MSC [ 4,16 ] . Furthermore, the process of aggregation of bone marrow aspirates is a painful process and therefore other beginnings are preferred. As such adipose tissues have been identified as a beginning from which adequate chondrogenic primogenito r cells can be obtained at initial crop for research lab and clinical usage. It besides provides us an advantage of insulating adequate cells in a short sum of clip during tissue civilization enlargement. Adipose Stem Cells ( ASCs ) have the similar distinction potency, morphology, phenotype and cistron look as MSCs, as demonstrated by several surveies and are considered as a better beginning of multi-lineage mesoblastic root cells for tissue technology in regard to their copiousness and handiness [ 6,43 ] . In decision, we know that there are multiple root cell reservoirs available for gristle TE research and clinical applications ; we should see utilizing the reservoir that is ( I ) available in a big volume with limited morbidity of the environing tissue upon crop ; and ( two ) accessible without or with the lowest sum of hurting. Furthermore the reservoir should ( iii ) clasp cells which are capable of distinction into chondrocytes, produce gristle seeded on biomaterial like scaffolds and ( four ) can be detected by simple research lab methods. In my sentiment adipose tissue provides us menus better in comparing in all the above characteristics. However, to go on to take advantage of ASCs for gristle tissue technology and its applications we require a complete apprehension of how the care and distinction of ASCs are regulated both in vivo and in vitro. Though it is considered to hold greater possible and can be developed as a suited option to cram marrow, farther surveies in clinically relevant animate being theoretical accounts are needed for better proof. Besides regulative issues and safety facets should be addressed exhaustively in presymptomatic and clinical scenes. Standardization of protocols and sooner automated devices for isolation of ASCs need to be pursued with a proper set of surface markers to verify the presence of the right ASCs cells within the primary cell isolate. Future developments in biomaterial for scaffolds and bioreactor design for cell civilization will take without uncertainty to new vehicles for the bringing of ASCs to cartilage defect sites. Besides the development of optimum conditions such as h ypoxia and appropriate biophysical cues, hydrostatic force per unit area and hyperosmolarity for in vitro cultivation can further increase the chondrogenic committedness and the ability of these cells to intercede the coevals of de novo gristle tissue.

Comparative politics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Comparative politics - Research Paper Example ctions and public policies with particular focus on the relationship between political culture and individual or group behaviors as well as how the individual/group behaviors are related with public policy outputs. With regard to the relationship between political culture and individual and group behaviors, political culture significantly influences both individual and group behaviors in various countries. This is largely attributed to the fact that political culture deeply impacts on the way individuals see their political world and ultimately shape their behavior within their political world. For example, in a democratic political culture, individuals and the society in general often tend to actively participate in the political processes are pursue their interests freely as long as they do not infringe on the rights of others. Generally, in relations to individualistic view of governmental policies, political culture influences the individuals view of the practices of who gets what, when and how in the society. Contrastingly, in an authoritarian political culture, individuals are generally raised to believe that the interest of the state and the institutions serving the state overrides their individual interests and personal freedom1. For example, an empirical research conducted by Tezcà ¼r et al. (2012) to investigate the support for democracy in Iran revealed that the political culture in the country has a significant negative impact on the support for democracy in the Islamic State. Using a national survey, the researchers particularly found out that the dominant political culture in Iran is closely intertwined with religiosity and this has influenced the popular support for the Islamic regime and lower levels of support for democracy (Tezcà ¼r et al., 2012: 238). In the comparative public theoretical analysis, the groups in the political societies are easily influenced by the charismatic leaderships exhibited to the. Populist ideas of political cultures by